Come join in the gamers chat mania

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Welcome to Vampire Chat Rooms

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What is an IP address?

What is an IP address?

What’s my IP address?, Every computer connected to the Internet is assigned a unique number known as an Internet Protocol (IP) address.

IP Search is IP addresses consist of four numbers separated by periods (also called a “dotted-quad”) and look something like 127.0.0.1.

Since these numbers are usually assigned to internet service providers within country-based blocks, an IP address can often be used to identify the country from which a computer is connecting to the Internet.

Because the numbers may be tedious to deal with, an IP address may also be assigned to a Host name, which is sometimes easier to remember. Hostnames may be looked up to find IP addresses, and vice-versa.

At one time ISPs issued one IP address to each user. These are called static IP addresses. Because there is a limited number of IP addresses and with increased usage of the internet ISPs now issue IP addresses in a dynamic fashion out of a pool of IP addresses (Using DHCP). These are referred to as dynamic IP addresses. This also limits the ability of the user to host websites, mail servers, ftp servers, and DNS servers. Dynamic DNS services can be used to provide DNS records for servers running on dynamic assigned IP addresses.

In addition to users connecting to the internet, with virtual hosting, a single machine can act like multiple machines (with multiple domain names and IP addresses).

An IP address can sometimes be used to determine the user’s general location.

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An Important Overview of New York Bar CLE

An Important Overview of New York Bar CLE
New York Bar CLE requirements are different from those of other states, and every state has its own set of requirements, rules and regulations when it comes to these legal stipulations. One of the worst mistakes that a legal professional could make would be to assume that the requirements of New York Bar CLE is the same as those of California, Florida, Texas or anywhere else.
It is important that all NY legal professionals understand the requirements that they need to fulfill in order to stay in good standing with the state.There are participatory credits that most states require, so it is imperative that you know how to get those and what courses count as participatory credits. These are needed in addition to the regular coursework. New York Bar CLE has to include Legal Ethics and Professionalism, which is usually required for many states. There are also other stipulations that are needed by professionals, and these are time requirements called compliance requirements. These need to be taken and reported every two years, so this means that the reporting cycle for the state is every two years.

This is different from many other states; some other professionals in certain states have to repeat their courses and report them every year, and others have to do it every three years. NY also requires 24 total credits, and these all have to be reported on time. The deadline for completing these courses occurs at a specific time every other year is also specific to each state, and for NY it is the birth date of the legal professional who takes the courses. The deadline date by which the New York Bar CLE courses need to be reported by is thirty days after the date of the professionals birthday during those years. Attorneys who have been practicing in the state for a while need to finish the 24 required hours every other year, which means that they have to report them that often too.

Attorneys who are new to practicing in NY have to also complete some additional courses which are considered to be transitional courses. Even though many of the courses that are required of professionals are offered online by qualified websites, these transitional courses may or may not be, so if you need to take these types of New York Bar CLE courses be sure that you know who offers them and who does not.

California Bar MCLE Requirements

California Bar MCLE Requirements
More legal professionals than ever before are fulfilling the requirements for California Bar MCLE than ever before by going online and taking the courses via the Internet. There are many different websites online that companies have put together to help professionals take these courses that are needed right from the comfort of their own homes, any time it is convenient for them.
If you are interested in taking these types of courses online, be sure that the site that you are working off of is approved and certified to offer qualified California Bar MCLE courses. If not, youll be wasting a lot of time and money.

The best websites will not only have the courses that are needed for the requirements for continuing legal education, but they will also have what exactly those requirements are. The best websites contain courses and information for several different states, and it is important that you realize that the requirements for one state are definitely not the same as the requirements in other states. Every state operates with their own requirements. The good news is that with online courses there is no waiting for test results, no waiting for certificates of completion to come in the mail, and many people are able to get good deals on membership fees by purchasing different payment plans or membership options.

Some of those membership options include those that last for certain periods of time or those that are good for a certain number of credit hours. Taking courses bundled together from a website for California Bar MCLE can also be a way of saving money. Aside from the issue of saving money, there are other perks as well that professionals love. They do not have to pay for transportation to get to and from traditional classes that are held, they do not have to fight for a spot in a class that is offered at some inconvenient time, and they do not have to take time away from their work or their families in order to take these online courses. Many of the most popular membership plans that people choose are those that allow a professional to have unlimited access to as many continuing legal education hours as they can get for a certain amount of time, whether it be 30 days, 60 days, 90 days, 6 months or a year, so you may want to consider going with one of these options in order to get the most benefit for your California Bar MCLE courses.

How Does a Rock Crusher Work?

How Does a Rock Crusher Work?
A rock crusher, as the name implies, is a device that crushes large rocks into smaller, more manageable pieces. Utilized primarily in the construction and road-building industries, crushers can process natural rock and reclaimed materials like concrete to produce aggregate products such as gravel, rock dust, or rock fill used for erosion control or landscaping.
The basic design of most crushers includes a hopper at the top where raw material is held before being fed into the crushing mechanism by either gravity or a belt drive. After the material is crushed, it is then discharged through an opening at the bottom where it can be further processed. The several types of crushers include jaw crushers, impact crushers, cone crushers, gyratory crushers, and roller crushers.

Jaw Crushers

Jaw crushers, sometimes referred to as toggle crushers, consist of two vertical plates, one moveable, one stationary, that grind rocks between them through compression. The jaw plates start out farther apart at the top but move closer toward the bottom, forming a tapered chute that looks like a collapsible V. The plates work together through gradual inertia that is produced by a weighted flywheel. As the rocks move down the chute, the tapering allows them to become progressively smaller before they exit through an output opening at the bottom. Jaw crushers can handle materials of varying hardness and abrasiveness.

Impact Crushers

Impact crushers use impact motions rather than pressure to crush material and are generally used to process softer, non-abrasive material. There are two types of impact crushers: horizontal shaft and vertical shaft. A horizontal shaft impact crusher breaks rocks with two large swinging hammers fixed on a spinning rotor and is best used on materials such as limestone, basalt, gypsum or granite. A vertical shaft impact crusher uses high velocity to crush material, “throwing” rocks against an anvil until they break apart. The final product of a vertical crusher is usually cubic shaped which is optimal for highway construction and water conservancy projects. It can be used on various materials including quartz, granite, limestone and bauxite.

Cone Crushers

Cone crushers operate by squeezing rocks between a mantle that covers a gyrating spindle and an enclosed concave hopper. Rocks enter through the top and become wedged between the mantle and the concave. Larger pieces are broken up and then fall downward to a lower level where they are broken up further until they are small enough to fall through the narrow output at the bottom. Cone crushers have higher production efficiencies because they are prone to less wear and tear and are easy to operate. They are ideal on hard and medium-hard stones used in stone mining or building material.

Gyratory Crushers

Gyratory crushers have fixed concave surfaces and conical heads that that move in a slightly circular pattern. Rocks are crushed when the gap between these surfaces close together. As with cone crushers and jaw crushers, the rocks get increasingly smaller at each level they fall. Primarily used in mine or ore processing plants, gyratory crushers work with various types of ores including iron and copper.

Roller Crushers

Roller crushers are used on soft, fragile materials such as limestone, chalk and clay. The crushers consist of two rollers, one fixed and provided with a flywheel while the other is adjustable to accommodate the varying sizes of materials. The raw materials are fed through an opening and fall between the rollers, where they are crushed to one-third to one-fifth of their regular size. After reduction, the final products exit through an output opening. If an extremely hard object gets jammed between the rollers, the crusher feed will automatically stop to prevent damage.

Although rock crushers generally are large and heavy, a new generation of rock crushers now offers portability and on-site crushing, greatly improving production by eliminating transportation time to fixed plants. Some of these newer models combine the actions of jaw and roller crushers and have a wide range of compression strengths. As technology advances, industry heads can expect even more efficiency, which will ultimately translate into greater cost savings.

Finding Texas MCLE Certification Online

Texas MCLE can be done easily, conveniently, quickly and completely over the Internet, thanks to companies that have designed websites for these professionals to use. The best ones collect all of the information that professionals need to know in order to stay in good standing with the state bar.
There are many different requirements that professionals have to abide by, and they are all different for different states so you must make sure that you are very familiar with your individual states demands. Even though in the past, professionals could only take their courses by going to a classroom for many hours, today they are able to fulfill their requirements completely online. This is great for those who are super busy, those with many family obligations, and those who do not want to take more time away from their careers than they have to.

To get enough Texas MCLE that you need in The Lonestar State, you will need to go online and find one of the websites that offer it all. The best websites will be able to not only offer the courses but will also offer all of the information about the requirements that a professional needs. The more information that a site contains, the better it will help you. Any and every website must be approved and certified by the TX Bar in order for your efforts and courses to be counted as legitimate. The best websites not only make it easier to successfully complete the requirements but they also reduce the amount of stress and time that are required to complete them. There is no traveling involved, no time constraints, and no suit and tie are required. The number of Continuing Legal Education hours that states require varies, and while TX requires a total of 15, but other states are different. Florida requires 30 hours, but New York only requires 24. Some of the states have different options or electives for attorneys to choose from, and they also have specialty certification requirements that are part of the total required credits. Texas requirements include a specialty certification in Legal Ethics or Professionalism.

Usually those states that only have 15 or so hours required make professionals repeat those hours more often. For example, While New York requires 24 continuing legal education hours, they only have to be taken every two years. Texas MCLE requirements involve only 15 hours much less than New York, but those must be repeated every year.

Single Moms Eligible for Education Funding

Single moms don’t often have education at the top of their priority lists. There are tasks to get done around the house that take up most of the time, and the budget is pretty much spent on taking care of the family. President Barack Obama wants to help these mothers with the financial aspect. He has set aside funding for these women to go back to school so they can find a more desirable job to support the family.
The Pell Federal Grant helps those who need financial assistance, and applicants have to prove their income. But if you do not qualify for the government grants, there are many programs out there that offer scholarship aid. All it takes is a little research and some time and dedication. However, funding is limited so it would be best to take action now.

Colleges often offer scholarships so it also would not hurt to look at the school’s Web site to see what they have available. There are a variety of resources that people don’t think about. Going back to school is important, especially for single mothers, because it can improve their home life. Finding a better job will make day-to-day life easier because the mother will only have to work one job, and will not be so tired at the end of the day. She will get to spend more time with her loved ones and they will appreciate that.

If you would like to learn more about what funding is available, please definitely do your research. You will feel confident on your journey to getting a college degree, and even more so after you have earned it and are on your way to job interviews and to your new career. More importantly, your children will admire you for what you are working for and will hopefully want the same for themselves when it is their time to make the choice on higher education.

Passive Income - Why you need it and how to create it

Passive Income - Why you need it and how to create it
It was once popular to work until the age of 65 and collect a company pension to compensate your social security. Today unless you work for the State, City, Federal Government, one of the original once regulated government utilities or an established collective bargaining union pensions are no more.
They have been replaced with what is called a 401K, which you contribute to from your payroll income and in most cases receive a partial company contribution. You can also contribute to an Individual Retirement Account (IRA), for the self employed this is called a SEP. This is all the result of the Federal Government cease of backing your money by gold and turning it into a currency backed by only the faith of the federal government. On top of this your social security which is your government forced retirement savings is at jeopardy of not being available as the baby boomers are reaching retirement age and cashing in. I am not a believer that the Federal Government will actually renege on payment of your Social Security. I could be wrong, but I am of the opinion that the federal government will be more inclined to simply print more money, thereby adding to the currency. The result will be inflation, the retired poor and the next extreme recession. Even those fortunate enough to still have a pension, will find it difficult to afford themselves a decent standard of living.

The solution is to establish a passive income, and one way to do it is through building a Network Marketing Business of your own part time, and growing it over time until you establish a residual income, a livable wage or become wealthy. I would suggest the efforts that lead to the latter of the three. There are other methods for passive income, the most known is possibly real estate, but that still requires a substantial investment and self learning of the business. Most investors who earn passive incomes from real estate already have wealth. It is very difficult to become a real estate mogul with low budget investments. The money producing properties are expensive. There is also the law of compound interest. Compounding interest investments take many years to surface into a true passive income and today finding those 12 to 16 percent returns are near impossible.

A Network Marketing Business can be started with a very minimum investment, and avail you with all of the learning materials and individual assistance to make start up turnkey and the process automated. While most venues of developing a livable passive income can take decades with a Network Marketing business it can be down within a few years.

Home Based Business Success Tip - Don’t Be A CheapSkate

Home Based Business Success Tip - Don’t Be A CheapSkate
Home based business success can only be determined by you, your actions, and your goals. If you have a goal in mind that you need to reach, you’re going to need tools along the way. This is no time to cut corners and be a cheapskate. You may be hurting for money right now, but the course of action you take at this moment will determine your success in the future.

You know by now that you need a website; this means you’ll need a domain, hosting, and design. You also need an auto-responder, and advertising (so people can find their way to your site). Most people look online for the cheapest possible deals and ways of skirting around monthly fees. Why would you want to pay someone for using their services, when you can get them for free? Well, I’ll tell you that if you want to achieve massive home based business success, then it’s better (in the long run) to actually pay for some of the services you’ll need

You want to use their services for convenience, stability, and reputation. If you go with an extremely cheap domain company and hosting account, then that is the type of service you’ll receive. They may have no technical support and a lot of downtime. You may have issues with your account, lost domain information, and countless other problems. Your best bet is to find a good domain service (like godaddy or namecheap) and a quality hosting company (like hostgator). You still shouldn’t pay more than $15/year for domains and no more than $10/month for a host (for start-up sites that is).

Proper website design is very important for achieving home based business success. For your website design, sure you could do it yourself if you know how to build sites. Or you could install wordpress and start blogging, or you could hire a website designer and have them take care of it for you. This way your site looks professional and you look like you should be taken seriously. You don’t have to spend thousands of dollars on a site design. Shop around. Typically local businesses charge more, and if your best friend’s daughter’s best friend says she can design it.. that’s nice. But don’t mix business and friendship. Hire someone you don’t know, this way you can boss them around or tell them you don’t like something without hurting their feelings.

Next… your auto-responder. This is one of those investments that you make now that will pay off in the future. You can try using the auto-responder that comes with your host (which I DO NOT recommend) or you could try one of those freebie online versions. And there’s some cheap services out there. Remember though, you get what you pay for. You may lose addresses, they may not back-up their information, you may not be able to transfer if you change your mind, and you may have slow deliverability or none at all.

Take my advice and get a quality auto-responder now (like aweber or icontact). Build that up and use it. Work that much harder to pay covering the cost of it if it’s bothering you that much.

When driving traffic to your website, tools like Google Adwords and article/video submission are priceless. Some advertising can be free and that may be the only real thing you can be a cheapskate on (for now). But paying for traffic (or tools that help drive traffic) is something that all of us home based business entrepreneurs have to do!

Establishing you and your website in the beginning may not be easy, but if you use a combination of SEO, social media, and other marketing tools, you should be able to get your site noticed. Once you have your own product or a special event, it’s then time to pay for some real advertising.

Of course the best and fastest way of doing all of this, is to get a mentor. Sure it’s not cheap, but it will help you achieve success a thousand times faster

Soft loan to personal loan

Soft loan to personal loan

If you want a soft loan for the purpose of buying a car with a loan, should the bank or leasing, there is a possibility you will be faced with a high interest loan, for that you should be careful in choosing leasing company, in this case there is a give PERSONAL LOAN benefit form the interest rate is low, competitive, lightening installment

The personal loans can also be used for those who plan to buy a house, home repair, car repair, buying aircraft, aircraft maintenance, purchase and also if you want a party married, honey moon party, personal loans etc you can also use as a personal loan highly profitable because flexible addition, low interest rates and repayment of light.

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go to anime chat

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Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei

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"Galileo" redirects here. For other uses, see Galileo (disambiguation).
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Galileo Galilei

Portrait of Galileo Galilei by Giusto Sustermans
Born 15 February 1564(1564-02-15)[1]
Pisa,[1] Duchy of Florence, Italy
Died 8 January 1642 (aged 77)[1]
Arcetri,[1] Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy
Residence Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Italy
Nationality Italian
Fields Astronomy, Physics and Mathematics
Institutions University of Pisa
University of Padua
Alma mater University of Pisa
Academic advisors Ostilio Ricci[2]
Notable students Benedetto Castelli
Mario Guiducci
Vincenzio Viviani[3]
Known for Kinematics
Dynamics
Telescopic observational astronomy
Heliocentrism
Religious stance Roman Catholic
Signature
Notes
His father was the musician Vincenzo Galilei. His mistress was Marina Gamba and Maria Celeste was one of Galileo's daughters.

Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564[4] – 8 January 1642)[1][5] was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations, and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy,"[6] the "father of modern physics,"[7] the "father of science,"[7] and "the Father of Modern Science."[8] Stephen Hawking says, "Galileo, perhaps more than any other single person, was responsible for the birth of modern science."[9]

The motion of uniformly accelerated objects, taught in nearly all high school and introductory college physics courses, was studied by Galileo as the subject of kinematics. His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, improving compass design.

Galileo's championing of Copernicanism was controversial within his lifetime, when a large majority of philosophers and astronomers still subscribed (at least outwardly) to the geocentric view that the Earth is at the centre of the universe. After 1610, when he began supporting heliocentrism publicly, he met with bitter opposition from some philosophers and clerics, and two of the latter eventually denounced him to the Roman Inquisition early in 1615. Although he was cleared of any offence at that time, the Catholic Church nevertheless condemned heliocentrism as "false and contrary to Scripture" in February 1616,[10] and Galileo was warned to abandon his support for it—which he promised to do. When he later defended his views in his most famous work, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, published in 1632, he was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy," forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Life
* 2 Scientific methods
* 3 Astronomy
o 3.1 Contributions
o 3.2 Controversy over comets and The Assayer
o 3.3 Galileo, Kepler and theories of tides
* 4 Technology
* 5 Physics
* 6 Mathematics
* 7 Church controversy
* 8 His writings
* 9 Legacy
* 10 Notes
* 11 See also
* 12 References
* 13 External links

Life

Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist and music theorist, and Giulia Ammannati. Four of their six children survived infancy, and the youngest Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo) became a noted lutenist and composer.

Galileo's full name was Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei. At the age of 8, his family moved to Florence, but he was left with Jacopo Borghini for two years.[1] He then was educated in the Camaldolese Monastery at Vallombrosa, 35 km southeast of Florence.[1] Although he seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, he enrolled for a medical degree at the University of Pisa at his father's urging. He did not complete this degree, but instead studied mathematics.[11] In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591 his father died and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua, teaching geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610.[12] During this period Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure science (for example, kinematics of motion, and astronomy) and applied science (for example, strength of materials, improvement of the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which in pre-modern disciplinary practice was seen as correlated to the studies of mathematics and astronomy.[13]

Although a genuinely pious Roman Catholic,[14] Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba. They had two daughters, Virginia in 1600 and Livia in 1601, and one son, Vincenzo, in 1606. Because of their illegitimate birth, their father considered the girls unmarriageable. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were sent to the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives.[15] Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimized and married Sestilia Bocchineri.[16]

In 1610 Galileo published an account of his telescopic observations of the moons of Jupiter, using this observation to argue in favour of the sun-centered, Copernican theory of the universe against the dominant earth-centered Ptolemaic and Aristotelian theories. The next year Galileo visited Rome in order to demonstrate his telescope to the influential philosophers and mathematicians of the Jesuit Collegio Romano, and to let them see with their own eyes the reality of the four moons of Jupiter.[17] While in Rome he was also made a member of the Accademia dei Lincei.[18]

In 1612, opposition arose to the Sun-centered theory of the universe which Galileo supported. In 1614, from the pulpit of the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, Father Tommaso Caccini (1574–1648) denounced Galileo's opinions on the motion of the Earth, judging them dangerous and close to heresy. Galileo went to Rome to defend himself against these accusations, but, in 1616, Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino personally handed Galileo an admonition enjoining him neither to advocate nor teach Copernican astronomy.[19] During 1621 and 1622 Galileo wrote his first book, The Assayer (Il Saggiatore), which was approved and published in 1623. In 1630, he returned to Rome to apply for a license to print the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, published in Florence in 1632. In October of that year, however, he was ordered to appear before the Holy Office in Rome.

Following a papal trial in which he was found vehemently suspect of heresy, Galileo was placed under house arrest and his movements restricted by the Pope. From 1634 onward he stayed at his country house at Arcetri, outside of Florence. He went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice. He continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died.[20][21]
Scientific methods

Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics.[22] More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of William Gilbert, on magnetism and electricity. Galileo's father, Vincenzo Galilei, a lutenist and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the tension.[23] These observations lay within the framework of the Pythagorean tradition of music, well-known to instrument makers, which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole number produces a harmonious scale. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related music and physical science, and young Galileo could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition.[24]

Galileo is perhaps the first to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In The Assayer he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures; ... ."[25] His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy.[26] Although he tried to remain loyal to the Catholic Church, his adherence to experimental results, and their most honest interpretation, led to a rejection of blind allegiance to authority, both philosophical and religious, in matters of science. In broader terms, this aided the separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought.

By the standards of his time, Galileo was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. Modern philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend also noted the supposedly improper aspects of Galileo's methodology, but he argued that Galileo's methods could be justified retroactively by their results. The bulk of Feyerabend's major work, Against Method (1975), was devoted to an analysis of Galileo, using his astronomical research as a case study to support Feyerabend's own anarchistic theory of scientific method. As he put it: 'Aristotelians ... demanded strong empirical support while the Galileans were content with far-reaching, unsupported and partially refuted theories. I do not criticize them for that; on the contrary, I favour Niels Bohr's "this is not crazy enough."'[27] In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using inductive reasoning.

Galileo showed a remarkably modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x). Galilei further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal trajectory of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of friction and other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola,[28] but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would only be very slight.[29] Thirdly, he recognized that his experimental data would never agree exactly with any theoretical or mathematical form, because of the imprecision of measurement, irreducible friction, and other factors.

According to Stephen Hawking, Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else,[30] and Albert Einstein called him the father of modern science.[31]
Astronomy
Contributions
It was on this page that Galileo first noted an observation of the moons of Jupiter. This observation upset the notion that all celestial bodies must revolve around the Earth. Galileo published a full description in Sidereus Nuncius in March 1610
The phases of Venus, observed by Galileo in 1610

Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope, invented by Hans Lippershey in the Netherlands in 1608, Galileo, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. He later made others with up to about 30x magnification.[32] With this improved device he could see magnified, upright images on the earth – it was what is now known as a terrestrial telescope, or spyglass. He could also use it to observe the sky; for a time he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated his first telescope to Venetian lawmakers. His telescopes were a profitable sideline. He could sell them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a brief treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger).

On 7 January 1610 Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible[33] by their smallness," all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it.[34] Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter:[35] He had discovered three of Jupiter's four largest satellites (moons): Io, Europa, and Callisto. He discovered the fourth, Ganymede, on 13 January. Galileo named the four satellites he had discovered Medicean stars, in honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers.[36] Later astronomers, however, renamed them the Galilean satellites in honour of Galileo himself.

A planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not conform to the principles of Aristotelian Cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies should circle the Earth,[37] and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that Galileo could have discovered such a thing.[38] His observations were confirmed by the observatory of Christopher Clavius and he received a hero's welcome when he visited Rome in 1611[39]

Galileo continued to observe the satellites over the next eighteen months, and by mid 1611 he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which Kepler had believed impossible.[40]

From September 1610, Galileo observed that Venus exhibited a full set of phases similar to that of the Moon. The heliocentric model of the solar system developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. On the other hand, in Ptolemy's geocentric model it was impossible for any of the planets' orbits to intersect the spherical shell carrying the Sun. Traditionally the orbit of Venus was placed entirely on the near side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only crescent and new phases. It was, however, also possible to place it entirely on the far side of the Sun, where it could exhibit only gibbous and full phases. After Galileo's telescopic observations of the crescent, gibbous and full phases of Venus, therefore, this Ptolemaic model became untenable. Thus in the early 17th century as a result of his discovery the great majority of astronomers converted to one of the various geo-heliocentric planetary models[41], such as the Tychonic, Capellan and Extended Capellan models[42], each either with or without a daily rotating Earth. These all had the virtue of explaining the phases of Venus without the vice of the 'refutation' of full heliocentrism’s prediction of stellar parallax. Galileo’s discovery of the phases of Venus was thus arguably his most empirically practically influential contribution to the two-stage transition from full geocentrism to full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism.

Galileo also observed the planet Saturn, and at first mistook its rings for planets, thinking it was a three-bodied system. When he observed the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented at Earth, causing him to think that two of the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared when he observed the planet in 1616, further confusing him.[43]

Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe sunspots, although Kepler had unwittingly observed one in 1607, but mistook it for a transit of Mercury. He also reinterpreted a sunspot observation from the time of Charlemagne, which formerly had been attributed (impossibly) to a transit of Mercury. The very existence of sunspots showed another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens posited by orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics, but their regular periodic transits also confirmed the dramatic novel prediction of Kepler's Aristotelian celestial dynamics in his 1609 Astronomia Nova that the sun rotates, which was the first successful novel prediction of post-spherist celestial physics.[44] And the annual variations in sunspots' motions, discovered by Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612–1613,[45] provided a powerful argument against both the Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe.[46] For the seasonal variation refuted all non-geo-rotational geostatic planetary models such as the Ptolemaic pure geocentric model and the Tychonic geoheliocentric model in which the Sun orbits the Earth daily, whereby the variation should appear daily but does not. But it was explicable by all geo-rotational systems such as Longomontanus's semi-Tychonic geo-heliocentric model, Capellan and extended Capellan geo-heliocentric models with a daily rotating Earth, and the pure heliocentric model. A dispute over priority in the discovery of sunspots, and in their interpretation, led Galileo to a long and bitter feud with the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner; in fact, there is little doubt that both of them were beaten by David Fabricius and his son Johannes, looking for confirmation of Kepler's prediction of the sun's rotation. Scheiner quickly adopted Kepler's 1615 proposal of the modern telescope design, which gave larger magnification at the cost of inverted images; Galileo apparently never changed to Kepler's design.

Galileo was the first to report lunar mountains and craters, whose existence he deduced from the patterns of light and shadow on the Moon's surface. He even estimated the mountains' heights from these observations. This led him to the conclusion that the Moon was "rough and uneven, and just like the surface of the Earth itself," rather than a perfect sphere as Aristotle had claimed.

Galileo observed the Milky Way, previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared to be clouds from Earth. He located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye. Galileo also observed the planet Neptune in 1612, but did not realize that it was a planet and took no particular notice of it. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. He observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Major in 1617.[47] In the Starry Messenger Galileo reported that stars appeared as mere blazes of light, essentially unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and contrasted them to planets which the telescope revealed to be disks. However, in later writings he described the stars as also being disks, whose sizes he measured. According to Galileo, stellar disk diameters typically measured a tenth the diameter of the disk of Jupiter (one five-hundredth the diameter of the sun), although some were somewhat larger and others substantially smaller. Galileo argued that stars were suns, and that they were not arranged in a spherical shell surrounding the solar system but rather were at varying distances from Earth. Brighter stars were closer suns, and fainter stars were more distant suns. Based on this idea and on the sizes he claimed for stellar disks, he calculated stars to lie at distances ranging from several hundred solar distances for bright stars to over two thousand solar distances for faint stars barely visible to the unaided eye, with stars visible only with the telescope being further still. These distances, although too small by modern standards, were far larger than planetary distances, and he used these calculations to counter anti-Copernican arguments that distant stars were an absurdity.[48]
Controversy over comets and The Assayer
Main article: The Assayer

In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in a controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of comets, but by the time Galileo had published The Assayer (Il Saggiatore) in 1623, his last salvo in the dispute, it had become a much wider argument over the very nature of Science itself. Because The Assayer contains such a wealth of Galileo's ideas on how Science should be practised, it has been referred to as his scientific manifesto.[49]

Early in 1619, Father Grassi had anonymously published a pamphlet, An Astronomical Disputation on the Three Comets of the Year 1618 ,[50] which discussed the nature of a comet that had appeared late in November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body which had moved along a segment of a great circle at a constant distance from the earth,[51] and since it moved in the sky more slowly than the moon, it must be farther away than the moon.

Grassi's arguments and conclusions were criticized in a subsequent article, Discourse on the Comets ,[52] published under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Florentine lawyer named Mario Guiducci, although it had been largely written by Galileo himself.[53] Galileo and Guiducci offered no definitive theory of their own on the nature of comets,[54] although they did present some tentative conjectures which we now know to be mistaken.

In its opening passage, Galileo and Guiducci's Discourse gratuitously insulted the Jesuit Christopher Scheiner,[55] and various uncomplimentary remarks about the professors of the Collegio Romano were scattered throughout the work.[56] The Jesuits were offended,[57] and Grassi soon replied with a polemical tract of his own, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance ,[58] under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano,[59] purporting to be one of his own pupils.

The Assayer was Galileo's devastating reply to the Astronomical Balance.[60] It has been widely regarded as a masterpiece of polemical literature,[61] in which "Sarsi's" arguments are subjected to withering scorn.[62] It was greeted with wide acclaim, and particularly pleased the new pope, Urban VIII, to whom it had been dedicated.[63]

Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many of the Jesuits who had previously been sympathetic to his ideas,[64] and Galileo and his friends were convinced that these Jesuits were responsible for bringing about his later condemnation.[65] The evidence for this is at best equivocal, however.[66]
Galileo, Kepler and theories of tides

Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system could not be defended without "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth circles the sun."[67] Galileo considered his theory of the tides to provide the required physical proof of the motion of the earth. This theory was so important to Galileo that he originally intended to entitle his Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea.[68] For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earth's surface speeded up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. Galileo circulated his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini.[69]

If this theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, about twelve hours apart. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes, including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors.[70] Against the assertion that Galileo was deceptive in making these arguments, Albert Einstein expressed the opinion that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth.[71]

Galileo dismissed as a "useless fiction" the idea, held by his contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the moon caused the tides.[72] Galileo also refused to accept Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets,[73] considering the circle the "perfect" shape for planetary orbits.
Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon by Leoni.
A replica of the earliest surviving telescope attributed to Galileo Galilei, on display at the Griffith Observatory.
Technology

Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as technology, as distinct from pure physics, and suggested others. This is not the same distinction as made by Aristotle, who would have considered all Galileo's physics as techne or useful knowledge, as opposed to episteme, or philosophical investigation into the causes of things. Between 1595–1598, Galileo devised and improved a Geometric and Military Compass suitable for use by gunners and surveyors. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by Niccolò Tartaglia and Guidobaldo del Monte. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating cannons accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of gunpowder for cannonballs of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular polygon, computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations. About 1593, Galileo constructed a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube.

In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni Demisiani,[74] at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo a member of his Accademia dei Lincei.[75] The name was derived from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'. In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects.[76] By 1624 he had perfected[77] a compound microscope. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria,[78] and in September he sent another to Prince Cesi.[79] The Linceans played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member Giovanni Faber coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small," and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at." The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope."[80][81] Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes, and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the use of a compound microscope.[82]

In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of longitude. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life; but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used by Lewis and Clark. For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required development of a practical portable marine chronometer, such as that of John Harrison.[citation needed]

In his last year, when totally blind, he designed an escapement mechanism for a pendulum clock, a vectorial model of which may be seen here. The first fully operational pendulum clock was made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s. Galilei created sketches of various inventions, such as a candle and mirror combination to reflect light throughout a building, an automatic tomato picker, a pocket comb that doubled as an eating utensil, and what appears to be a ballpoint pen.[citation needed]
Physics
Galileo e Viviani, 1892, Tito Lessi

Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and René Descartes, was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton.

A biography by Galileo's pupil Vincenzo Viviani stated that Galileo had dropped balls of the same material, but different masses, from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass.[83] This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight.[84] While this story has been retold in popular accounts, there is no account by Galileo himself of such an experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that it was at most a thought experiment which did not actually take place.[85]

In his 1638 Discorsi Galileo's character Salviati, widely regarded as largely Galileo's spokesman, held that all unequal weights would fall with the same finite speed in a vacuum. But this had previously been proposed by Lucretius[86] and Simon Stevin.[87] Salviati also held it could be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in air with bobs of lead and of cork which had different weight but which were otherwise similar.

Galileo proposed that a falling body would fall with a uniform acceleration, as long as the resistance of the medium through which it was falling remained negligible, or in the limiting case of its falling through a vacuum.[88] He also derived the correct kinematical law for the distance travelled during a uniform acceleration starting from rest—namely, that it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time ( d ∝ t 2 ).[89] However, in neither case were these discoveries entirely original. The time-squared law for uniformly accelerated change was already known to Nicole Oresme in the 14th century,[90] and Domingo de Soto, in the 16th, had suggested that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be uniformly accelerated.[91] Galileo expressed the time-squared law using geometrical constructions and mathematically precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms). He also concluded that objects retain their velocity unless a force—often friction—acts upon them, refuting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that objects "naturally" slow down and stop unless a force acts upon them (philosophical ideas relating to inertia had been proposed by Ibn al-Haytham centuries earlier, as had Jean Buridan, and according to Joseph Needham, Mo Tzu had proposed it centuries before either of them, but this was the first time that it had been mathematically expressed, verified experimentally, and introduced the idea of frictional force, the key breakthrough in validating inertia). Galileo's Principle of Inertia stated: "A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed." This principle was incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law).
Dome of the cathedral of Pisa with the "lamp of Galileo"

Galileo also claimed (incorrectly) that a pendulum's swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the amplitude. That is, that a simple pendulum is isochronous. It is popularly believed that he came to this conclusion by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse to time it. It appears however, that he conducted no experiments because the claim is true only of infinitesimally small swings as discovered by Christian Huygens. Galileo's son, Vincenzo, sketched a clock based on his father's theories in 1642. The clock was never built and, because of the large swings required by its verge escapement, would have been a poor timekeeper. (See Technology above.)

In 1638 Galileo described an experimental method to measure the speed of light by arranging that two observers, each having lanterns equipped with shutters, observe each other's lanterns at some distance. The first observer opens the shutter of his lamp, and, the second, upon seeing the light, immediately opens the shutter of his own lantern. The time between the first observer's opening his shutter and seeing the light from the second observer's lamp indicates the time it takes light to travel back and forth between the two observers. Galileo reported that when he tried this at a distance of less than a mile, he was unable to determine whether or not the light appeared instantaneously.[92] Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of the Florentine Accademia del Cimento repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and obtained a similarly inconclusive result.[93]

Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with, being one of the first to understand sound frequency. By scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of the sound produced to the spacing of the chisel's skips, a measure of frequency.

In his 1632 Dialogue Galileo presented a physical theory to account for tides, based on the motion of the Earth. If correct, this would have been a strong argument for the reality of the Earth's motion. In fact, the original title for the book described it as a dialogue on the tides; the reference to tides was removed by order of the Inquisition. His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure. Kepler and others correctly associated the Moon with an influence over the tides, based on empirical data; a proper physical theory of the tides, however, was not available until Newton.

Galileo also put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's special theory of relativity.
Mathematics

While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day. The analysis and proofs relied heavily on the Eudoxian theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of Euclid's Elements. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by Tartaglia and others; but by the end of Galileo's life it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of Descartes.

Galileo produced one piece of original and even prophetic work in mathematics: Galileo's paradox, which shows that there are as many perfect squares as there are whole numbers, even though most numbers are not perfect squares. Such seeming contradictions were brought under control 250 years later in the work of Georg Cantor.
Church controversy
Main article: Galileo affair
Cristiano Banti's 1857 painting Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition

Western Christian biblical references Psalm 93:1, Psalm 96:10, and 1 Chronicles 16:30 include (depending on translation) text stating that "the world is firmly established, it cannot be moved." In the same tradition, Psalm 104:5 says, "the LORD set the earth on its foundations; it can never be moved." Further, Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place" etc.[94]

Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages. He took Augustine's position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally, particularly when the scripture in question is a book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the sun does rise and set.

By 1616 the attacks on the ideas of Copernicus had reached a head, and Galileo went to Rome to try to persuade the Church authorities not to ban his ideas. In the end, Cardinal Bellarmine, acting on directives from the Inquisition, delivered him an order not to "hold or defend" the idea that the Earth moves and the Sun stands still at the centre. The decree did not prevent Galileo from discussing heliocentrism hypothesis (thus maintaining a facade of separation between science and the church). For the next several years Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616. The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission.

Pope Urban VIII personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another request, that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberately, Simplicio, the defender of the Aristotelian Geocentric view in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. Indeed, although Galileo states in the preface of his book that the character is named after a famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, Simplicio in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also has the connotation of "simpleton."[95] This portrayal of Simplicio made Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems appear as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defense of the Copernican theory. Unfortunately for his relationship with the Pope, Galileo put the words of Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicio. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book.[96] However, the Pope did not take the suspected public ridicule lightly, nor the Copernican advocacy. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings.

With the loss of many of his defenders in Rome because of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, Galileo was ordered to stand trial on suspicion of heresy in 1633. The sentence of the Inquisition was in three essential parts:

* Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy," namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.[97]
* He was ordered imprisoned; the sentence was later commuted to house arrest.
* His offending Dialogue was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.[98]

Tomb of Galileo Galilei, Santa Croce

According to popular legend, after recanting his theory that the Earth moved around the Sun, Galileo allegedly muttered the rebellious phrase And yet it moves, but there is no evidence that he actually said this or anything similarly impertinent. The first account of the legend dates to a century after his death.[99]

After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (the Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at Arcetri near Florence, where he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest, and where he later became blind. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarized work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials. This book has received high praise from both Sir Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein.[citation needed] As a result of this work, Galileo is often called, the "father of modern physics."

Galileo died on 8 January 1642 at 77 years of age. The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, wished to bury him in the main body of the Basilica of Santa Croce, next to the tombs of his father and other ancestors, and to erect a marble mausoleum in his honour.[100] These plans were scrapped, however, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested.[101] He was instead buried in a small room next to the novices' chapel at the end of a corridor from the southern transept of the basilica to the sacristy.[102] He was reburied in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument had been erected there in his honour.[103]

The Inquisition's ban on reprinting Galileo's works was lifted in 1718 when permission was granted to publish an edition of his works (excluding the condemned Dialogue) in Florence.[104] In 1741 Pope Benedict XIV authorized the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works[105] which included a mildly censored version of the Dialogue.[106] In 1758 the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus remained.[107] All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the Church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index.[108]

In 1939 Pope Pius XII, in his first speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, within a few months of his election to the papacy, described Galileo as being among the "most audacious heroes of research ... not afraid of the stumbling blocks and the risks on the way, nor fearful of the funereal monuments"[109] His close advisor of 40 years, Professor Robert Leiber wrote: "Pius XII was very careful not to close any doors (to science) prematurely. He was energetic on this point and regretted that in the case of Galileo."[110]

On 15 February 1990, in a speech delivered at the Sapienza University of Rome,[111] Cardinal Ratzinger (later to become Pope Benedict XVI) cited some current views on the Galileo affair as forming what he called "a symptomatic case that permits us to see how deep the self-doubt of the modern age, of science and technology goes today."[112] Some of the views he cited were those of the philosopher Paul Feyerabend, whom he quoted as saying “The Church at the time of Galileo kept much more closely to reason than did Galileo himself, and she took into consideration the ethical and social consequences of Galileo's teaching too. Her verdict against Galileo was rational and just and the revision of this verdict can be justified only on the grounds of what is politically opportune.”[113] The Cardinal did not clearly indicate whether he agreed or disagreed with Feyerabend's assertions. He did, however, say "It would be foolish to construct an impulsive apologetic on the basis of such views."[112]

On 31 October 1992, Pope John Paul II expressed regret for how the Galileo affair was handled, and issued a declaration acknowledging the errors committed by the Church tribunal that judged the scientific positions of Galileo Galilei, as the result of a study conducted by the Pontifical Council for Culture.[114][115] In March 2008 the Vatican proposed to complete its rehabilitation of Galileo by erecting a statue of him inside the Vatican walls.[116] In December of the same year, during events to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contributions to astronomy.[117]
His writings
Statue outside the Uffizi, Florence.

Galileo's early works describing scientific instruments include the 1586 tract entitled The Little Balance (La Billancetta) describing an accurate balance to weigh objects in air or water[118] and the 1606 printed manual Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare on the operation of a geometrical and military compass.[119]

His early works in dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics were his 1590 Pisan De Motu (On Motion) and his circa 1600 Paduan Le Meccaniche (Mechanics). The former was based on Aristotelian-Archimedean fluid dynamics and held that the speed of gravitational fall in a fluid medium was proportional to the excess of a body's specific weight over that of the medium, whereby in a vacuum bodies would fall with speeds in proportion to their specific weights. It also subscribed to the Hipparchan-Philoponan impetus dynamics in which impetus is self-dissipating and free-fall in a vacuum would have an essential terminal speed according to specific weight after an initial period of acceleration.

Galileo's 1610 The Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) was the first scientific treatise to be published based on observations made through a telescope. It reported his discoveries of:

* the Galilean moons;
* the roughness of the Moon's surface;
* the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the naked eye, particularly those responsible for the appearance of the Milky Way; and
* differences between the appearances of the planets and those of the fixed stars—the former appearing as small discs, while the latter appeared as unmagnified points of light.

Galileo published a description of sunspots in 1613 entitled Letters on Sunspots[120] suggesting the Sun and heavens are corruptible. The Letters on Sunspots also reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of Venus, and his discovery of the puzzling "appendages" of Saturn and their even more puzzling subsequent disappearance. In 1615 Galileo prepared a manuscript known as the Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina which was not published in printed form until 1636. This letter was a revised version of the Letter to Castelli, which was denounced by the Inquisition as an incursion upon theology by advocating Copernicanism both as physically true and as consistent with Scripture.[121] In 1616, after the order by the inquisition for Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican position, Galileo wrote the Discourse on the tides (Discorso sul flusso e il reflusso del mare) based on the Copernican earth, in the form of a private letter to Cardinal Orsini.[122] In 1619, Mario Guiducci, a pupil of Galileo's, published a lecture written largely by Galileo under the title Discourse on the Comets (Discorso Delle Comete), arguing against the Jesuit interpretation of comets.[123]

In 1623, Galileo published The Assayer – Il Saggiatore, which attacked theories based on Aristotle's authority and promoted experimentation and the mathematical formulation of scientific ideas. The book was highly successful and even found support among the higher echelons of the Christian church.[124] Following the success of The Assayer, Galileo published the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) in 1632. Despite taking care to adhere to the Inquisition's 1616 instructions, the claims in the book favouring Copernican theory and a non Geocentric model of the solar system led to Galileo being tried and banned on publication. Despite the publication ban, Galileo published his Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze) in 1638 in Holland, outside the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.

* The Little Balance (1586)
* On Motion (1590) [125]
* Mechanics (c1600)
* The Starry Messenger (1610; in Latin, Sidereus Nuncius)
* Letters on Sunspots (1613)
* Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina (1615; published in 1636)
* Discourse on the Tides (1616; in Italian, Discorso del flusso e reflusso del mare)
* Discourse on the Comets (1619; in Italian, Discorso Delle Comete)
* The Assayer (1623; in Italian, Il Saggiatore)
* Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632; in Italian Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del mondo)
* Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638; in Italian, Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze)

Legacy

Galileo's astronomical discoveries and investigations into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorisation of the four large moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) as the Galilean moons. Other scientific endeavours and principles are named after Galileo including the Galileo spacecraft,[126] the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter, the proposed Galileo global satellite navigation system, the transformation between inertial systems in classical mechanics denoted Galilean transformation and the Gal (unit), sometimes known as the Galileo which is a non-SI unit of acceleration.
International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin

Partly because 2009 is the fourth centenary of Galileo's first recorded astronomical observations with the telescope, the United Nations has scheduled it to be the International Year of Astronomy.[127] A global scheme laid out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), it has also been endorsed by UNESCO — the UN body responsible for Educational, Scientific and Cultural matters. The International Year of Astronomy 2009 is intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a particular slant towards young people.

Galileo is mentioned several times in the "opera" section of the famous Queen song, "Bohemian Rhapsody."

The 20th century German playwright Bertolt Brecht dramatised Galileo's life in his Life of Galileo (1943). A film adaptation with the title Galileo was released in 1975.

Galileo Galilei was recently selected as a main motif for a high value collectors' coin: the €25 International Year of Astronomy commemorative coin, minted in 2009. This coin also commemorates the 400th anniversary of the invention of Galileo's telescope. The obverse shows a portion of his portrait and his telescope. The background shows one of his first drawings of the surface of the moon. In the silver ring other telescopes are depicted: the Isaac Newton Telescope, the observatory in Kremsmünster Abbey, a modern telescope, a radio telescope and a space telescope. In 2009, the Galileoscope was also released. This is a mass produced low-cost educational 2-inch telescope with relatively high quality.
Notes

1. ^ a b c d e f g O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F.. "Galileo Galilei". The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. University of St Andrews, Scotland. http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Galileo.html. Retrieved 2007-07-24.
2. ^ F. Vinci, Ostilio Ricci da Fermo, Maestro di Galileo Galilei, Fermo, 1929.
3. ^ http://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu.id.php?id=134975
4. ^ Drake (1978, p.1). The date of Galileo's birth is given according to the Julian calendar, which was then in force throughout the whole of Christendom. In 1582 it was replaced in Italy and several other Catholic countries with the Gregorian calendar. Unless otherwise indicated, dates in this article are given according to the Gregorian calendar.
5. ^ Wikisource-logo.svg "Galileo Galilei" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia. by John Gerard. Retrieved 11 August 2007
6. ^ Singer, Charles (1941), A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century, Clarendon Press, http://www.google.com.au/books?id=mPIgAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 (page 217)
7. ^ a b Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse. pp. 155. ISBN 0-595-36877-8.
8. ^ Finocchiaro (2007).
9. ^ "Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science, by Stephen Hawking, American Heritage's Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36
10. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.127–131), McMullin (2005a).
11. ^ Reston (2000, pp. 3–14).
12. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp. 45–66).
13. ^ Rutkin, H. Darrel. "Galileo, Astrology, and the Scientific Revolution: Another Look". Program in History & Philosophy of Science & Technology, Stanford University. http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPST/colloquia0405.html. Retrieved 2007-04-15.
14. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.17, 213)
15. ^ Sobel (2000, p.5) Chapter 1. Retrieved on 26 August 2007. "But because he never married Virginia's mother, he deemed the girl herself unmarriageable. Soon after her thirteenth birthday, he placed her at the Convent of San Matteo in Arcetri."
16. ^ Pedersen, O. (24 May–27, 1984). "Galileo's Religion". Proceedings of the Cracow Conference, The Galileo affair: A meeting of faith and science. Cracow: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co.. pp. 75-102.
17. ^ Gebler (1879, pp. 22–35).
18. ^ Anonymous (2007). "History". Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. http://www.lincei.it/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=21. Retrieved 2008-06-10.
19. ^ There are contradictory documents describing the nature of this admonition and the circumstances of its delivery. Finocchiaro, The Galileo Affair, pp.147–149, 153
20. ^ Carney, Jo Eldridge (2000). Renaissance and Reformation, 1500-1620: a. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-30574-9.
21. ^ Allan-Olney (1870)
22. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.204–05)
23. ^ Cohen, H. F. (1984). Quantifying Music: The Science of Music at. Springer. pp. 78–84. ISBN 90-277-1637-4.
24. ^ Field, Judith Veronica (2005). Piero Della Francesca: A Mathematician's Art. Yale University Press. pp. 317–320. ISBN 0-300-10342-5.
25. ^ In Drake (1957, pp.237−238)
26. ^ Wallace, (1984).
27. ^ Feyerabend, Paul (1993). Against Method (3rd ed.). London: Verso. p. 129. ISBN 0-86091-646-4.
28. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.202–04), Galilei (1954, pp.250–52), Favaro (1898, 8:274–75) (Italian)
29. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.202–04), Galilei (1954, pp.252), Favaro (1898, 8:275) (Italian)
30. ^ Hawking (1988, p.179).
31. ^ Einstein (1954, p.271). "Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether."
32. ^ Drake (1990, pp.133–34).
33. ^ i.e., invisible to the naked eye.
34. ^ Drake (1978, p.146).
35. ^ In Sidereus Nuncius (Favaro,1892, 3:81(Latin)) Galileo stated that he had reached this conclusion on 11 January. Drake (1978, p.152), however, after studying unpublished manuscript records of Galileo's observations, concluded that he did not do so until 15 January.
36. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.17).
37. ^ Linton (2004, pp.98,205), Drake (1978, p.157).
38. ^ Drake (1978, p.158–68), Sharratt (1994, p.18–19).
39. ^ God's Philosophers ju James Hannam Orion 2009 p313
40. ^ Drake (1978, p.168), Sharratt (1994, p.93).
41. ^ Thoren (1989), p.8; Hoskin (1999) p.117.
42. ^ In the Capellan model only Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun, whilst in its extended version such as expounded by Riccioli, Mars also orbits the Sun, but the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn are centred on the Earth
43. ^ Baalke, Ron. Historical Background of Saturn's Rings. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, NASA. Retrieved on 2007-03-11
44. ^ In Kepler's Thomist 'inertial' variant of Aristotelian dynamics as opposed to Galileo's impetus dynamics variant all bodies universally have an inherent resistance to all motion and tendency to rest, which he dubbed 'inertia'. This notion of inertia was originally introduced by Averroes in the 12th century just for the celestial spheres in order to explain why they do not rotate with infinite speed on Aristotelian dynamics, as they should if they had no resistance to their movers. And in his Astronomia Nova celestial mechanics the inertia of the planets is overcome in their solar orbital motion by their being pushed around by the sunspecks of the rotating sun acting like the spokes of a rotating cartwheel. And more generally it predicted all but only planets with orbiting satellites, such as Jupiter for example, also rotate to push them around, whereas the Moon, for example, does not rotate, thus always presenting the same face to the Earth, because it has no satellites to push around. These seem to have been the first successful novel predictions of Thomist 'inertial' Aristotelian dynamics as well as of post-spherist celestial physics. In his 1630 Epitome (See p514 on p896 of the Encyclopædia Britannica 1952 Great Books of the Western World edition) Kepler keenly stressed he had proved the Sun's axial rotation from planetary motions in his Commentaries on Mars Ch 34 long before it was telescopically established by sunspot motion.
45. ^ Drake (1978, p.209). Sizzi reported the observations he and his companions had made over the course of a year to Orazio Morandi in a letter dated 10 April 1613 (Favaro,1901, 11:491 (Italian)). Morandi subsequently forwarded a copy to Galileo.
46. ^ In geostatic systems the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation (Linton, 2004, p.212; Sharratt, 1994, p.166; Drake, 1970, pp.191–196) However, in Drake's judgment of this complex issue in Chapter 9 of his 1970 this is not so, for it does not refute non-geostatic geo-rotating geocentric models. For at most the variable annual inclinations of sunspots’ monthly paths to the ecliptic only proved there must be some terrestrial motion, but not necessarily its annual heliocentric orbital motion as opposed to a geocentric daily rotation, and so it did not prove heliocentrism by refuting geocentrism. Thus it could be explained in the semi-Tychonic geocentric model with a daily rotating Earth such as that of Tycho's follower Longomontanus. Especially see p190 and p196 of Drake's article. Thus on this analysis it only refuted the Ptolemaic geostatic geocentric model whose required daily geocentric orbit of the sun would have predicted the annual variation in this inclination should be observed daily, which it is not.
47. ^ Ondra (2004), p. 72-73
48. ^ Finocchiaro (1989, p. 167-176), Drake (1953), p. 359-360), Ondra (2004), p. 74-75
49. ^ Drake (1960, pp.vii,xxiii–xxiv), Sharratt (1994, pp.139–140).
50. ^ Grassi (1960a).
51. ^ Drake (1978, p.268), Grassi (1960a, p.16).
52. ^ Galilei & Guiducci (1960).
53. ^ Drake (1960, p.xvi).
54. ^ Drake (1957, p.222), Drake (1960, p.xvii).
55. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.135), Drake (1960, p.xii), Galilei & Guiducci (1960, p.24).
56. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.135).
57. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.135), Drake (1960, p.xvii).
58. ^ Grassi (1960b).
59. ^ Drake (1978, p.494), Favaro(1896, 6:111). The pseudonym was a slightly imperfect anagram of Oratio Grasio Savonensis, a latinized version of his name and home town.
60. ^ Galilei (1960).
61. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.137), Drake (1957, p.227).
62. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.138–142).
63. ^ Drake (1960, p.xix).
64. ^ Drake (1960, p.vii).
65. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.175).
66. ^ Sharratt (1994, pp.175–78), Blackwell (2006, p.30).
67. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp. 67–9.
68. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), p. 354, n. 52
69. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp.119–133
70. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), pp.127–131 and Drake (1953), pp. 432–6
71. ^ Einstein (1952) p. xvii
72. ^ Finocchiaro (1989), p. 128
73. ^ Kusukawa, Sachiko. "Starry Messenger. The Telescope, Department of History and Philosophy of Science of the University of Cambridge. Retrieved on 2007-03-10]". http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/galtele.html.
74. ^ Sobel (2000, p.43), Drake (1978, p.196). In the Starry Messenger, written in Latin, Galileo had used the term "perspicillum."
75. ^ "omni-optical.com "A Very Short History of the Telescope"". http://www.omni-optical.com/telescope/ut104.htm.
76. ^ Drake (1978, p.163–164), Favaro(1892, 3:163–164)(Latin)
77. ^ Probably in 1623, according to Drake (1978, p.286).
78. ^ Drake (1978, p.289), Favaro(1903, 13:177) (Italian).
79. ^ Drake (1978, p.286), Favaro(1903, 13:208)(Italian). The actual inventors of the telescope and microscope remain debatable. A general view on this can be found in the article Hans Lippershey (last updated 2003-08-01), © 1995–2007 by Davidson, Michael W. and the Florida State University. Retrieved 2007-08-28
80. ^ "brunelleschi.imss.fi.it "Il microscopio di Galileo"" (PDF). http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/microscopio/dswmedia/risorse/testi_completi.pdf.
81. ^ Van Helden, Al. Galileo Timeline (last updated 1995), The Galileo Project. Retrieved 2007-08-28. See also Timeline of microscope technology.
82. ^ Drake (1978, p.286).
83. ^ Drake (1978, pp.19,20). At the time when Viviani asserts that the experiment took place, Galileo had not yet formulated the final version of his law of free fall. He had, however, formulated an earlier version which predicted that bodies of the same material falling through the same medium would fall at the same speed (Drake, 1978, p.20).
84. ^ Drake (1978, p.9); Sharratt (1994, p.31).
85. ^ Groleau, Rick. "Galileo's Battle for the Heavens. July 2002". http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/experiments.html. Ball, Phil. "Science history: setting the record straight. 30 June 2005". http://www.hindu.com/seta/2005/06/30/stories/2005063000351500.htm. An exception is Drake (1978, pp.19–21, 414–416), who argues that the experiment did take place, more or less as Viviani described it.
86. ^ Lucretius, De rerum natura II, 225–229; Relevant passage appears in: Lane Cooper, Aristotle, Galileo, and the Tower of Pisa (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1935), page 49.
87. ^ Simon Stevin, De Beghinselen des Waterwichts, Anvang der Waterwichtdaet, en de Anhang komen na de Beghinselen der Weeghconst en de Weeghdaet [The Elements of Hydrostatics, Preamble to the Practice of Hydrostatics, and Appendix to The Elements of the Statics and The Practice of Weighing] (Leiden, Netherlands: Christoffel Plantijn, 1586) reports an experiment by Stevin and Jan Cornets de Groot in which they dropped lead balls from a church tower in Delft; relevant passage is translated here: E. J. Dijksterhuis, ed., The Principal Works of Simon Stevin (Amsterdam, Netherlands: C. V. Swets & Zeitlinger, 1955) vol. 1, pages 509 and 511. Available on-line at: http://www.library.tudelft.nl/cgi-bin/digitresor/display.cgi?bookname=Mechanics%20I&page=509
88. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.203), Galilei (1954, pp.251–54).
89. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.198), Galilei (1954, p.174).
90. ^ Clagett (1968, p.561).
91. ^ Sharratt (1994, p.198), Wallace (2004, pp.II 384, II 400, III 272) Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would only fall with a strictly uniform acceleration in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity.
92. ^ Galileo Galilei, Two New Sciences, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr., 1974) p. 50.
93. ^ I. Bernard Cohen, "Roemer and the First Determination of the Velocity of Light (1676)," Isis, 31 (1940): 327–379, see pp. 332–333
94. ^ Brodrick (1965, c1964, p.95) quoting Cardinal Bellarmine's letter to Foscarini, dated 12 April 1615. Translated from Favaro(1902, 12:171–172) (Italian).
95. ^ Finocchiaro (1997, p.82); Moss & Wallace (2003, p.11)
96. ^ See Langford (1966, pp.133–134), and Seeger (1966, p.30), for example. Drake (1978, p.355) asserts that Simplicio's character is modelled on the Aristotelian philosophers, Lodovico delle Colombe and Cesare Cremonini, rather than Urban. He also considers that the demand for Galileo to include the Pope's argument in the Dialogue left him with no option but to put it in the mouth of Simplicio (Drake, 1953, p.491). Even Arthur Koestler, who is generally quite harsh on Galileo in The Sleepwalkers (1959), after noting that Urban suspected Galileo of having intended Simplicio to be a caricature of him, says "this of course is untrue" (1959, p.483)
97. ^ Fantoli (2005, p.139), Finocchiaro (1989, p.288–293). Finocchiaro's translation of the Inquisition's judgement against Galileo is available on-line. "Vehemently suspect of heresy" was a technical term of canon law and did not necessarily imply that the Inquisition considered the opinions giving rise to the verdict to be heretical. The same verdict would have been possible even if the opinions had been subject only to the less serious censure of "erroneous in faith" (Fantoli, 2005, p.140; Heilbron, 2005, pp.282-284).
98. ^ Drake (1978, p.367), Sharratt (1994, p.184), Favaro(1905, 16:209, 230)(Italian). See Galileo affair for further details.
99. ^ Drake (1978, p.356). The phrase "Eppur si muove" does appear, however, in a painting of the 1640s by the Spanish painter Bartolomé Esteban Murillo or an artist of his school. The painting depicts an imprisoned Galileo apparently pointing to a copy of the phrase written on the wall of his dungeon (Drake, 1978, p.357).
100. ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199); Sobel (2000, p.378).
101. ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199); Sobel (2000, p.378); Sharratt (1994, p.207); Favaro(1906,18:378–80) (Italian).
102. ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.199); Sobel (2000, p.380).
103. ^ Shea & Artigas (2003, p.200); Sobel (2000, p.380–384).
104. ^ Heilbron (2005, p.299).
105. ^ Two of his non-scientific works, the letters to Castelli and the Grand Duchess Christina, were explicitly not allowed to be included (Coyne 2005, p.347).
106. ^ Heilbron (2005, p.303–04); Coyne (2005, p.347). The uncensored version of the Dialogue remained on the Index of prohibited books, however (Heilbron 2005, p.279).
107. ^ Heilbron (2005, p.307); Coyne (2005, p.347) The practical effect of the ban in its later years seems to have been that clergy could publish discussions of heliocentric physics with a formal disclaimer assuring its hypothetical character and their obedience to the church decrees against motion of the earth: see for example the commented edition (1742) of Newton's 'Principia' by Fathers Le Seur and Jacquier, which contains such a disclaimer ('Declaratio') before the third book (Propositions 25 onwards) dealing with the lunar theory.
108. ^ McMullin (2005, p.6); Coyne (2005, p.346). In fact, the Church's opposition had effectively ended in 1820 when a Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, was given permission to publish a work which treated heliocentism as a physical fact rather than a mathematical fiction. The 1835 edition of the Index was the first to be issued after that year.
109. ^ Discourse of His Holiness Pope Pius XII given on 3 December 1939 at the Solemn Audience granted to the Plenary Session of the Academy, Discourses of the Popes from Pius XI to John Paul II to the Pontifical Academy of the Sciences 1939-1986, Vatican City, p.34
110. ^ Robert Leiber, Pius XII Stimmen der Zeit, November 1958 in Pius XII. Sagt, Frankfurt 1959, p.411
111. ^ An earlier version had been delivered on 16 December 1989, in Rieti, and a later version in Madrid on 24 February 1990 (Ratzinger, 1994, p.81). According to Feyerabend himself, Ratzinger had also mentioned him "in support of" his own views in a speech in Parma around the same time (Feyerabend, 1995, p.178).
112. ^ a b Ratzinger (1994, p.98).
113. ^ Ratzinger (1994, p.98)
114. ^ "Vatican admits Galileo was right". New Scientist. 1992-11-07. http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg13618460.600-vatican-admits-galileo-was-right-.html. Retrieved 2007-08-09. .
115. ^ "Papal visit scuppered by scholars". BBC News. 2008-01-15. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7188860.stm. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
116. ^ "Vatican recants with a statue of Galileo". TimesOnline News. 2008-03-04. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article3478943.ece. Retrieved 2009-03-02.
117. ^ "Pope praises Galileo's astronomy". BBC News. 2008-12-21. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7794668.stm. Retrieved 2008-12-22.
118. ^ Hydrostatic balance, The Galileo Project, http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/instruments/balance.html, retrieved 2008-07-17
119. ^ The Works of Galileo, The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences, http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&exbid=10&exbpg=1, retrieved 2008-07-17
120. ^ Sunspots and Floating Bodies, The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences, http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&exbid=13&exbpg=2, retrieved 2008-07-17
121. ^ Galileo, Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, The University of Oklahoma, College of Arts and Sciences, http://hsci.ou.edu/exhibits/exhibit.php?exbgrp=1&exbid=14&exbpg=3, retrieved 2008-07-17
122. ^ Galileo's Theory of the Tides, The Galileo Project, http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/observations/tides.html, retrieved 2008-07-17
123. ^ Galileo Timeline, The Galileo Project, http://galileo.rice.edu/chron/galileo.html, retrieved 2008-07-17
124. ^ Galileo Galilei, Tel-Aviv University, Science and Technology Education Center, http://muse.tau.ac.il/museum/galileo/galileo.html, retrieved 2008-07-17
125. ^ [1]
126. ^ Fischer, Daniel (2001). Mission Jupiter: The Spectacular Journey of the Galileo Spacecraft. Springer. pp. v. ISBN 0-387-98764-9.
127. ^ United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (11 August 2005). "Proclamation of 2009 as International year of Astronomy" (PDF). UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001403/140317e.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-10.

See also

* Villa Il Gioiello (Galileo's main home in Florence)
* Galileo day (a term used for a number of celebrations and campaigns)

References

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* Biagioli, Mario (1993). Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
* Blackwell, Richard J. (2006). Behind the Scenes at Galileo's Trial. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 0-268-02201-1.
* Brodrick, James, S. J. (1965) [c1964]. Galileo: the man, his work, his misfortunes. London: G. Chapman.
* Clagett, Marshall (editor & translator) (1968). Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of Qualities and Motions; a treatise on the uniformity and difformity of intensities known as Tractatus de configurationibus qualitatum et motuum. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-04880-2.
* Clavelin, Maurice (1974). The Natural Philosophy of Galileo. MIT Press.
* Coffa, J. (1968). "Galileo's Concept of Inertia". Physis Riv. Internaz. Storia Sci. 10: 261–281.
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* Drabkin, Israel; Drake, Stillman, eds (1960). On Motion and On Mechanics. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-02030-4.
* Drake, Stillman (translator) (1953). Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
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* Drake, Stillman (1970). Galileo Studies. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08283-3.
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* Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (1989). The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06662-6.
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