Nintendo Entertainment System

Nintendo Entertainment System

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"Famicom" redirects here. For the generic meaning of "Famikon" used in the Japanese language, see Video game console.
"NES" redirects here. For other uses, see NES (disambiguation).
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Nintendo Entertainment System
Nintendo Family Computer
Official Nintendo Entertainment System logoFamicom Family logo
The Nintendo Entertainment SystemThe Nintendo Family Computer (Famicom)
Manufacturer Nintendo
Type Video game console
Generation Third generation (8-bit era)
Retail availability JP July 15, 1983
US October 18, 1985
CA February 1986
EU September 1, 1986a[›]
EU / AUS 1987a[›]
Units sold 61.91 million[1]
Media ROM cartridge ("Game Pak")b[›]
CPU Ricoh 2A03 8-bit processor (MOS Technology 6502 core)
Controller input 2 controller portsc[›]
1 expansion slot
Best-selling game Super Mario Bros. (pack-in), 40.23 million (as of 1999)[2]
Super Mario Bros. 3, 18 million (as of May 21, 2003)[3]
Predecessor Color TV Game
Successor Super Nintendo Entertainment System

The Nintendo Entertainment System (abbreviated to NESd[›] or Nintendo) is an 8-bit video game console that was released by Nintendo in North America, Europe and Australia in 1985. In most of Asia, including Japan (where it was first launched in 1983), China, Vietnam, Singapore, and the Philippines, it was released as the Family Computer (ファミリーコンピュータ?), commonly abbreviated as the Famicom (ファミコン?, Famicom.ogg listen (help·info), or FC for short). In South Korea, it was known as the Hyundai Comboy (현대 컴보이) and was distributed by Hyundai Electronics. In Russia, it was known as Dendy (Де́нди). In South Asia, it was known as the Tata Famicom. It was succeeded by the Super Nintendo Entertainment System.

As the best-selling gaming console of its time,[4]e[›] the NES helped revitalize the US video game industry following the video game crash of 1983,[5] and set the standard for subsequent consoles in everything from game designf[›] to controller layout.g[›] In addition, with the NES, Nintendo introduced a now-standard business model of software licensing for third-party developers.[6]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 History
* 2 North American bundle packages
* 3 Regional differences
* 4 Game controllers
* 5 Hardware design flaws
* 6 Third-party licensing
o 6.1 Unlicensed games
o 6.2 Hardware clones
* 7 Technical specifications
o 7.1 Original chassis/casing
o 7.2 Redesigned model
o 7.3 Cartridges
o 7.4 Central processing unit
o 7.5 Memory
o 7.6 Video
o 7.7 Audio
* 8 NES Test Station
* 9 See also
* 10 Notes
* 11 References
* 12 External links

[edit] History
Main article: History of the Nintendo Entertainment System

Following a series of arcade game successes in the early 1980s, Nintendo made plans to produce a cartridge-based console. Masayuki Uemura designed the system, which was released in Japan on July 15, 1983 for ¥14,800 alongside three ports of Nintendo's successful arcade games Donkey Kong, Donkey Kong Jr., and Popeye. The Family Computer (or Famicom) was slow to gather momentum; a bad chip set caused the initial release of the system to crash. Following a product recall and a reissue with a new motherboard, the Famicom’s popularity soared, becoming the best-selling game console in Japan by the end of 1984.[7]

Encouraged by these successes, Nintendo soon turned its attention to the North American market. Nintendo entered into negotiations with Atari to release the Famicom under Atari’s name as the name Nintendo Advanced Video Gaming System; however, this deal eventually fell apart.[8][9]h[›] Subsequent plans to market a Famicom console in North America featuring a keyboard, cassette data recorder, wireless joystick controller, and a special BASIC cartridge under the name "Nintendo Advanced Video System" likewise never materialized.[10]

In June 1985, Nintendo unveiled its American version of the Famicom at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES). It rolled out its first systems to limited American markets starting in New York City on October 18, 1985, following up with a full-fledged North American release of the console in February of the following year.[11] Nintendo simultaneously released eighteen launch titles: 10-Yard Fight, Baseball, Clu Clu Land, Donkey Kong Jr. Math, Duck Hunt, Excitebike, Golf, Gyromite, Hogan’s Alley, Ice Climber, Kung Fu, Mach Rider, Pinball, Stack-Up, Super Mario Bros.[12], Tennis, Wild Gunman, and Wrecking Crew. It is also of note that to speed production for the holiday season, some varieties of these launch games contained Famicom chips with an adapter so they would play on North American consoles.

In Europe and Australia, the system was released to two separate marketing regions (A and B). Distribution in region B, consisting of most of mainland Europe (excluding Italy), was handled by a number of different companies, with Nintendo responsible for most cartridge releases; most of region B saw a 1986 release. Mattel handled distribution for region A, consisting of the United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy, Australia and New Zealand, starting the following year. Not until 1990 did Nintendo's newly created European branch take over distribution throughout Europe.[13] Despite the system’s lackluster performance outside of Japan and North America, by 1990 the NES had outsold all previously released consoles worldwide.[14] The Nintendo Entertainment System was not available in Eastern Bloc countries such as East Germany, the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia.

As the 1990s dawned, however, renewed competition from technologically superior systems such as the 16-bit Sega Mega Drive\Genesis marked the end of the NES’s dominance. Eclipsed by Nintendo's own Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), the NES’s user base gradually waned. Nintendo continued to support the system in North America through the first half of the decade, even releasing a new version of the system's console, the NES-101 model (known as the HVC-101 in Japan), to address many of the design flaws in the original console hardware.[15] The final games released for the system were as follows: in Japan, Takahashi Meijin no Bōken Jima IV (the last game in the Adventure Island series for the system), and, in North America, among unlicensed titles, Sunday Funday was the last, whereas Wario's Woods was the last licensed game (also the only one with an ESRB rating).[16] In the wake of ever decreasing sales and the lack of new software titles, Nintendo of America officially discontinued the NES by 1995. Despite this, Nintendo of Japan kept producing new Nintendo Famicom units up until September 2003,[17] when it discontinued the line. Even as developers ceased production for the NES, a number of high-profile video game franchises and series for the NES were transitioned to newer consoles and remain popular to this day. Nintendo's own Super Mario Bros., The Legend of Zelda, and Metroid franchises debuted on the NES, as did Capcom's Mega Man franchise, Konami's Castlevania franchise, and Square Soft's Final Fantasy and Enix's Dragon Quest (now Square Enix's) franchises.

Nintendo of Japan continued to repair Famicom consoles until October 31, 2007, attributing the decision to discontinue support to an increasing shortage of the necessary parts.[18][19][20]
[edit] North American bundle packages

For its North American release in 1985, the NES was released in two different configurations, or "bundles". The console deck itself was identical, but each bundle was packaged with different game paks and accessories. The first of these sets, the Control Deck, retailed from US$199.99 (equivalent to US$396 today), and included the console itself, and two game controllers. The second bundle, the Deluxe Set, retailed for US$249.99 (equivalent to US$495 today), and consisted of the console, a R.O.B. accessory, an NES Zapper (electronic gun), and two game paks: Duck Hunt and Gyromite.

For the remainder of the NES's commercial lifespan in North America, Nintendo frequently repackaged the console in new configurations to capitalize on newer accessories or popular game titles. Subsequent bundle packages included the NES Action Set, released in November 1988 for US$149.99 (equivalent to US$270 today),[21] which replaced both of the earlier two sets, and included the console, the NES Zapper, two game controllers, and a multicart version of Super Mario Bros. and Duck Hunt. The Action Set became the most successful of the packages released by Nintendo. One month later, in December 1988, to coincide with the release of the Power Pad floor mat controller, Nintendo released a new Power Set bundle, consisting of the console, the Power Pad, the NES Zapper, two controllers, and a multicart containing Super Mario Bros., Duck Hunt, and World Class Track Meet.[22] In 1990, a Sports Set bundle was released, including the console, an NES Satellite infrared wireless multitap adapter, four game controllers, and a multicart featuring Super Spike V'Ball and Nintendo World Cup.[13]

Two more bundle packages were released using the original model NES console. The Challenge Set included the console, two controllers, and a Super Mario Bros. 3 game pak. The Basic Set, first released in 1987, included only the console and two controllers with no pack-in cartridge. Instead, it contained a book called the Official Nintendo Player's Guide, which contained detailed information for every NES game made up to that point. Finally, the console was redesigned for both the North American and Japanese markets as part of the final Nintendo-released bundle package. The console was released under the name Control Deck in North America and AV Family Computer in Japan. The package included the new style console and one redesigned "dogbone" game controller. Released in October 1993 in North America, this final bundle retailed for US$49.99 (equivalent to US$74 today), and remained in production until the discontinuation of the NES in 1995.[15]
[edit] Regional differences
The Famicom Disk System was a peripheral available only for the Japanese Famicom that used games stored on "Disk Cards", reminiscent of 3" Quick Diskettes.

Although the Japanese Famicom, North American and European NES versions included essentially the same hardware, there were certain key differences between the systems:

* Different case design. The Famicom featured a top-loading cartridge slot, a 15-pin expansion port located on the unit’s front panel for accessories (as the controllers were hard-wired to the back of the console), and a red and white color scheme. The NES featured a front-loading cartridge slot, and a more subdued gray, black and red color scheme. An expansion port was found on the bottom of the unit, and the cartridge connector pinout was changed.
* 60-pin vs. 72-pin cartridges. The original Famicom and the re-released AV Family Computer both utilized a 60-pin cartridge design, which resulted in smaller cartridges than the NES, which utilized a 72-pin design. Four pins were used for the 10NES lockout chip.[23] Ten pins were added that connected a cartridge directly to the expansion port on the bottom of the unit. Finally, two pins that allowed cartridges to provide their own sound expansion chips were removed. Many early games (such as Stack-Up) released in North America were simply Famicom cartridges attached to an adapter (such as the T89 Cartridge Converter) to allow them to fit inside the NES hardware. Nintendo did this to reduce costs and inventory by using the same cartridge boards in North America and Japan.
* Peripherals. A number of peripheral devices and software packages were released for the Famicom. Few of these devices were ever released outside of Japan.
o Family BASIC is an implementation of BASIC for the Famicom. It allowed the user to program their own games. Many programmers got their first experience on programming for the console this way.
o Famicom MODEM is a modem that allowed connection to a Nintendo server which provided content such as jokes, news (mainly about Nintendo), game tips, and weather reports for Japan; it also allowed a small number of programs to be downloaded. A modem was, however, tested in the United States, by the Minnesota State Lottery. It would have allowed players to buy scratchcards and play the lottery with their NES. It was not released in the United States because some parents and legislators voiced concern that minors might learn to play the lottery illegally and anonymously, despite assurances from Nintendo to the contrary.[24]
* External sound chips. The Famicom had two cartridge pins that allowed cartridges to provide external sound enhancements. They were originally intended to facilitate the Famicom Disk System’s external sound chip. These pins were removed from the cartridge port of the NES, and relocated to the bottom expansion port. As a result, individual cartridges could not make use of this functionality, and many NES localizations suffered from technologically inferior sound compared to their equivalent Famicom versions. Castlevania III: Dracula's Curse is a notable example of this problem.

Unlike the NES, the Famicom's controllers were hardwired to the system itself. The 2nd controller eliminated the Start and Select buttons, replacing them with a microphone and a volume control slider.

* Hardwired controllers. The Famicom’s original design includes hardwired, non-removable controllers. In addition, the second controller featured an internal microphone for use with certain games and lacked SELECT and START buttons. Both the controllers and the microphone were subsequently dropped from the redesigned AV Famicom in favor of the two seven-pin controller ports on the front panel used in the NES from its inception.
* Lockout circuitry. The Famicom contained no lockout hardware, and, as a result, unlicensed cartridges (both legitimate and bootleg) were extremely common throughout Japan and the Far East. The original NES (but not the top-loading NES-101) contained the 10NES lockout chip, which significantly increased the challenges faced by unlicensed developers. Tinkerers at home in later years discovered that disassembling the NES and cutting the fourth pin of the lockout chip would change the chip’s mode of operation from "lock" to "key", removing all effects and greatly improving the console’s ability to play legal games, as well as bootlegs and converted imports.[25] NES consoles sold in different regions had different lockout chips, so games marketed in one region would not work on consoles from another region. Known regions are: USA/Canada (3193 lockout chip), most of Europe (3195), Asia (3196) and UK, Italy and Australia (3197). Since two types of lockout chip were used in Europe, European NES game boxes often had an "A" or "B" letter on the front, indicating whether the game is compatible with UK/Italian/Australian consoles (A), or the rest of Europe (B).[13] Rest-of-Europe games typically had text on the box stating "This game is not compatible with the Mattel or NES versions of the Nintendo Entertainment System". Similarly, UK/Italy/Australia games stated "This game is only compatible with the Mattel or NES versions of the Nintendo Entertainment System".
* Audio/video output. The original Famicom featured an RF modulator plug for audio/video output, while the original NES featured both an RF modulator and RCA composite output cables. The AV Famicom featured only RCA composite output, and the top-loading NES 2 featured only RF modulator output. The original North American NES was the first game console to feature direct composite video output so people could hook it up to a stand-alone composite monitor.
* Third-party cartridge manufacturing. In Japan, six companies, namely Nintendo, Konami, Capcom, Namco, Bandai and Jaleco, manufactured the cartridges for the Famicom. This allowed these companies to develop their own customized chips designed for specific purposes, such as Konami's VRC 6 and VRC 7 sound chips that increased the quality of sound in their games.
* European "Mattel" and "NES" Versions. In the UK, Italy and Australia, two versions of the NES were released, the "Mattel Version" and "NES Version".[26] When the NES was first released in those countries, it was distributed by Mattel, and Nintendo decided to use a lockout chip specific to those countries, different from the chip used in other European countries. Later Nintendo took over distribution and the consoles were then labeled "NES Version" instead. The only differences between the two is the text on the front flap and a smoother finish on the top of the console.

[edit] Game controllers
See also: List of Nintendo Entertainment System accessories
Before the 1984 product recall, Famicom controllers were manufactured with square-shaped A and B buttons.

The game controller used for both the NES and the Famicom featured an oblong brick-like design with a simple four button layout: two round buttons labelled "A" and "B", a "START" button, and a "SELECT" button. Additionally, the controllers utilized the cross-shaped D-pad, designed by Nintendo employee Gunpei Yokoi for Nintendo Game & Watch systems, to replace the bulkier joysticks on earlier gaming consoles’ controllers.

The original model Famicom featured two game controllers, both of which were hardwired to the back of the console. The second controller lacked the START and SELECT buttons, but featured a small microphone. Relatively few games made use of this feature. The earliest produced Famicom units initially had square A and B buttons.[27] This was changed to the circular designs because of the square buttons being caught in the controller casing when pressed down, and glitches within the hardware causing the system to freeze occasionally while playing a game.
In addition to featuring a revised color scheme that matched the more subdued tones of the console itself, NES controllers could be unplugged and lacked the microphone featured in Famicom controllers.

The NES dropped the hardwired controllers, instead featuring two custom 7-pin ports on the front of the console. Also in contrast to the Famicom, the controllers included with the NES were identical to each other—the second controller lacked the microphone that was present on the Famicom model, and possessed the same START and SELECT buttons as the primary controller.
The NES Zapper, a light gun accessory

A number of special controllers designed for use with specific games were released for the system, though very few such devices proved particularly popular. Such devices included, but were not limited to, the NES Zapper (a light gun), the Power Pad, the R.O.B., the LaserScope, the Vaus, and the Power Glove. The original Famicom featured a deepened DA-15 expansion port on the front of the unit, which was used to connect most auxiliary devices. On the NES, these special controllers were generally connected to one of the two control ports on the front of the unit.

Near the end of the NES's lifespan, upon the release of the AV Famicom and the top-loading NES 2, the design of the game controllers was modified slightly. Though the original button layout was retained, the redesigned device abandoned the "brick" shell in favor of a "dog bone" shape reminiscent of the controllers of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. In addition, the AV Famicom joined its international counterpart and dropped the hardwired controllers in favor of detachable controller ports. However, the controllers included with the Famicom AV, despite being the "dog bone" type, had cables which were a short three feet long, as opposed to the standard six feet of NES controllers.

In recent years, the original NES controller has become one of the most recognizable symbols of the console. Nintendo has mimicked the look of the controller in several recent products, from promotional merchandise to limited edition versions of the Game Boy Advance SP and Game Boy Micro handheld game consoles.
[edit] Hardware design flaws
The official NES Cleaning Kit was intended to address flaws in the NES design that caused cartridge connectors to be particularly susceptible to interference from dirt and dust.

When Nintendo released the NES in the United States, the design styling was deliberately different from that of other game consoles. Nintendo wanted to distinguish its product from those of competitors, and to avoid the generally poor reputation that game consoles had acquired following the video game crash of 1983. One result of this philosophy was a front-loading zero insertion force (ZIF) cartridge socket designed to resemble the front-loading mechanism of a VCR. The ZIF connector worked quite well when both the connector and the cartridges were clean and the pins on the connector were new. Unfortunately, the ZIF connector was not truly zero insertion force. When a user inserted the cartridge into the NES, the force of pressing the cartridge down and into place bent the contact pins slightly, as well as pressing the cartridge’s ROM board back into the cartridge itself. Repeated insertion and removal of cartridges caused the pins to wear out relatively quickly, and the ZIF design proved far more prone to interference by dirt and dust than an industry-standard card edge connector.[28] Exacerbating the problem was Nintendo’s choice of materials; the slot connector that the cartridge was actually inserted into was highly prone to corrosion.[29] Add-on peripherals like the popular Game Genie cheat cartridge tended to further exacerbate this problem by bending the front-loading mechanism during gameplay.[30] Recently, third-party manufacturers have been producing gold clones of the NES connector piece to replace the existing one and prevent corrosion.[31]
The 10NES authentication chip contributed to the system's reliability problems. The circuit was ultimately removed from the remodeled NES 2.

Problems with the 10NES lockout chip frequently resulted in the console's most infamous problem: the blinking red power light, in which the system appears to turn itself on and off repeatedly. The lockout chip was quite finicky, requiring precise timing in order to permit the system to boot. Dirty, aging, and bent connectors would often disrupt the timing, resulting in the blink effect.[32] Alternatively, the console would turn on but only show a solid white, gray, or green screen. Users attempted to solve this problem by blowing air onto the cartridge connectors, licking the edge connector, slapping the side of the system after inserting a cartridge, shifting the cartridge from side to side after insertion, pushing the ZIF up and down repeatedly, holding the ZIF down lower than it should have been, and/or cleaning the connectors with alcohol which, observing the back of the cartridge, was not endorsed by Nintendo. Many of the most frequent attempts to fix this problem instead ran the risk of damaging the cartridge and/or system. In 1989, Nintendo released an official NES Cleaning Kit to help users clean malfunctioning cartridges and consoles.

With the release of the top-loading NES-101 (NES 2) toward the end of the NES's lifespan, Nintendo resolved the problems by switching to a standard card edge connector, and eliminating the lockout chip. All of the Famicom systems used standard card edge connectors, as did Nintendo’s subsequent game consoles, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System and the Nintendo 64.

In response to these hardware flaws, "Nintendo Authorized Repair Centers" sprang up across the United States. According to Nintendo, the authorization program was designed to ensure that the machines were properly repaired. Nintendo would ship the necessary replacement parts only to shops that had enrolled in the authorization program. In practice, the authorization process consisted of nothing more than paying a fee to Nintendo for the privilege. In a recent trend, many sites have sprung up to offer Nintendo repair parts, guides and services, that replace those formerly offered by the authorized repair centers.
[edit] Third-party licensing
The Nintendo Seal of Quality was placed on every officially licensed NES cartridge released in North America.

Nintendo's near monopoly on the home video game market left it with a degree of influence over the industry exceeding even that of Atari during Atari's heyday in the early 1980s. Unlike Atari, which never actively courted third-party developers (and even went to court in an attempt to force Activision to cease production of Atari 2600 games), Nintendo had anticipated and encouraged the involvement of third-party software developers—but strictly on Nintendo's terms. To this end, a 10NES authentication chip was placed in every console, and another was placed in every officially licensed cartridge. If the console's chip could not detect a counterpart chip inside the cartridge, the game would not load. Because Nintendo controlled the production of all cartridges, it was able to enforce strict rules on its third-party developers. Third-party developers were also required to sign a contract by Nintendo that would obligate these parties to develop exclusively for the system. These extremely restricted production runs would end up damaging several smaller software developers: even if demand for their games was high, they could only produce as much profit as Nintendo allowed.[4]
[edit] Unlicensed games
Unlicensed games, such as Wisdom Tree's Bible Adventures, were often released in cartridges which looked very different from typical NES game packs.

Several companies, refusing to pay the licensing fee or having been rejected by Nintendo, found ways to circumvent the console's authentication system. Most of these companies created circuits that used a voltage spike to temporarily disable the 10NES chip in the NES. A few unlicensed games released in Europe and Australia came in the form of a dongle that would be connected to a licensed game, in order to use the licensed game's 10NES chip for authentication.

Atari Games created a line of NES products under the name Tengen, and took a different approach. The company attempted to reverse engineer the lockout chip to develop its own "Rabbit" chip. However, Tengen also obtained a description of the lockout chip from the United States Patent and Trademark Office by falsely claiming that it was required to defend against present infringement claims in a legal case. Nintendo sued Tengen for copyright infringement, which Tengen lost as it could not prove that the illegally obtained patent documents had not been used by the reverse engineering team. Tengen's antitrust claims against Nintendo were never finally decided.[33]

Following the introduction of the Sega Mega Drive\Genesis, Nintendo began to face real competition in the industry, and in the early 1990s was forced to reevaluate its stance towards its developers, many of whom had begun to defect to other systems. When the console was reissued as the NES 2, the 10NES chip was omitted as a cost-saving measure. Games marketed for the NES after that point still included a 10NES chip in order to work with the large installed base of original NES consoles.
Pirated clones of NES hardware remained in production for many years after the original had been discontinued. Such devices were frequently built to superficially resemble younger consoles, such as the PlayStation.
[edit] Hardware clones
Main article: Nintendo Entertainment System hardware clone

A thriving market of unlicensed NES hardware clones emerged during the heyday of the console's popularity. Initially, such clones were popular in markets where Nintendo never issued a legitimate version of the console. In particular, the Dendy (Russian: Де́нди), an unlicensed hardware clone produced in Taiwan and sold in the former Soviet Union, emerged as the most popular video game console of its time in that setting, and it enjoyed a degree of fame roughly equivalent to that experienced by the NES/Famicom in North America and Japan. The Family Game was marketed in Argentina, resembling the original hardware design. The Micro Genius (Simplified Chinese: 小天才) was marketed in Southeast Asia as an alternative to the Famicom, Samurai was the popular PAL alternative to the NES and in Central Europe, especially Poland, the Pegasus was available.[34]

The unlicensed clone market has flourished following Nintendo's discontinuation of the NES. Some of the more exotic of these resulting systems have gone beyond the functionality of the original hardware, and have included variations such as a portable system with a color LCD (e.g. PocketFami). Others have been produced with certain specialized markets in mind, including various "educational computer packages" which include copies of some of the NES's educational games and come complete with a clone of the Famicom BASIC keyboard, transforming the system into a rather primitive personal computer.[35] These unauthorized clones have been helped by the invention of the so-called NES-on-a-chip.

As was the case with unlicensed software titles, Nintendo has typically gone to the courts to prohibit the manufacture and sale of unlicensed cloned hardware. Many of the clone vendors have included built-in copies of licensed Nintendo software, which constitutes copyright infringement in most countries. As recently as 2004, Nintendo of America has filed suits against manufacturers of the Power Player Super Joy III, an NES clone console that had been sold in North America, Europe and Australia.

Although most hardware clones were not produced under license by Nintendo, certain companies were granted licenses to produce NES-compatible devices. The Sharp Corporation produced at least two such clones: the Twin Famicom and the SHARP 19SC111 television. The Twin Famicom was compatible with both Famicom cartridges and Famicom Disk System disks. It was available in two colors (red and black) and used hardwired controllers (as did the original Famicom), but it featured a different case design. The SHARP 19SC111 television was a television which included a built-in Famicom.[36] A similar licensing deal was reached with Hyundai Electronics, who licensed the system under the name Comboy in the South Korean market. This deal with Hyundai was made necessary because of the South Korean government's wide ban on all Japanese "cultural products", which remained in effect until 1998 and ensured that the only way Japanese products could legally enter the South Korean market was through licensing to a third-party (non-Japanese) distributor (see also Japan–Korea disputes).[37]
[edit] Technical specifications
[edit] Original chassis/casing

The original Japanese Famicom was predominantly white plastic, with dark red trim. It featured a top-loading cartridge slot, and grooves on both sides of the deck in which the hardwired game controllers could be placed when not in use.

The original version of the North American NES used a radically different design. The NES's color scheme was two different shades of gray, with black trim. The top-loading cartridge slot was replaced with a front-loading mechanism. The slot is covered by a small, hinged door that can be opened to insert or remove a cartridge, and closed at other times. The dimensions of this model are 10" width by 8" length by 3.5" height. When opened, the cartridge slot door adds an additional 1" height to the unit. Due to its bulky, square design and slot-loading functionality, the original NES chassis is often referred to as the "Toaster".
[edit] Redesigned model
Main article: Nintendo Entertainment System (redesigned model)

The NES-101 model of the Nintendo Entertainment System (HVC-101 model in Japan), known informally as the "top-loader", uses the same basic color scheme, although there are several subtle differences. The power switch is colored a bright red and slides into the on and off position, similar to the SNES, instead of the original push-button. Also, there is no LED power indicator on the unit. Like the original Family Computer, it uses a top-loading cartridge slot. The NES-101 model was redesigned after the (also top loading) SNES, and indeed they share many of the same design cues. The NES-101 model is considerably more compact than the original NES-001 model, measuring 6" by 7" by 1.5". The NES-101 model offered only RF outputs instead of the RF and RCA (mono) outputs offered on the original NES-001 model, whereas the HVC-101 model of the Family Computer offered RCA connectors only.
[edit] Cartridges
North American cartridges (or "Game Paks", pictured) were significantly longer than their Japanese counterparts, but were not as wide.

All officially licensed North American (NTSC) and European (PAL) cartridges, or "carts", are 5.25" (13.3 cm) tall, 4.75" (12 cm) wide, and .75" (2 cm) thick. Originally, NES carts were held together with 5 small, slotted screws. Later games (post-1987) were redesigned slightly to incorporate two plastic clips molded into the plastic itself, eliminating the need for the top two screws.[38] This is why older NES carts are referred to as "5-screw", and are distinguishable by their flat tops and, as the name suggests, five screws instead of three. Around this time, the standard screws were changed to 3.8 mm security screws to further secure the ROMs inside from tampering. The back of the cartridge bears a label with instructions on handling. These labels were gray for standard games and gold (or in rare cases silver) for games that featured battery backup. With the exception of The Legend of Zelda and Zelda II: The Adventure of Link, which were available in gold-plastic carts, all licensed NTSC and PAL cartridges were a standard shade of gray plastic. Unlicensed carts were produced in black (Tengen, American Video Entertainment, and Wisdom Tree), robin egg blue (Color Dreams and Wisdom Tree) and gold (Camerica), and were all slightly different shape and style than a standard NES cart. Nintendo also produced yellow-plastic carts for internal use at Nintendo Service Centers, although these "test carts" were never made available for purchase by consumers.

Japanese (Famicom) cartridges are shaped slightly differently, measuring only 3" (7.6 cm) in length, but 5.3" (13.5 cm) in width. While the NES used a 72-pin interface, the Famicom system used a 60-pin design. Some early NES games (most commonly Gyromite) were actually 60-pin Famicom PCBs and ROMs with a built-in converter.[39] Unlike NES games, official Famicom carts were produced in many colors of plastic. Adapters, similar in design to the popular accessory Game Genie, are available that allow Famicom games to be played on an NES.
[edit] Central processing unit
Versions of the NES console released in PAL regions incorporated a Ricoh 2A07 CPU.

For its central processing unit (CPU), the NES uses an 8-bit microprocessor produced by Ricoh based on a MOS Technology 6502 core. It incorporates custom sound hardware and a restricted DMA controller on-die. To save some space on the silicon, the Ricoh CPU omitted the 6502s BCD (binary coded decimal) command. NTSC (North America and Japan) versions of the console use the Ricoh 2A03 (or RP2A03), which runs at 1.79 MHz.[40] PAL (Europe and Australia) versions of console utilize the Ricoh 2A07 (or RP2A07), which is identical to the 2A03 save for the fact that it runs at a slower 1.66 MHz clock rate and has its sound hardware adjusted accordingly.[41]
[edit] Memory

The NES contains 2 KB of onboard work RAM. A game cartridge may contain expanded RAM to increase this amount. It also has 2 KB of video RAM for the use of the picture processing unit (PPU), 256 bytes of sprite RAM and some palette RAM. The system supports up to 32 KB of program ROM at a time, but this can be expanded by orders of magnitude by the process of bank switching. Additionally, cartridges may contain 8 KB of SRAM and 8,168 bytes (nearly 8 KB) of address space reserved as "Expansion Area." Expanded Video memory (VROM or VRAM) may also be available on the cartridge. (on-cartridge mapping hardware also allowing further Video expansion past 12 KB) [40]
[edit] Video

The NES uses a custom-made Picture Processing Unit (PPU) developed by Ricoh. The version of the processor used in NTSC models of the console, named the RP2C02, operates at 5.37 MHz, while the version used in PAL models, named the RP2C07, operates at 5.32 MHz.[41] Both the RP2C02 and RP2C07 output composite video.[40] Special versions of the NES's hardware designed for use in video arcades use other variations of the PPU. The PlayChoice-10 uses the RP2C03, which runs at 5.37 MHz and outputs RGB video at NTSC frequencies. Two different variations were used for Nintendo Vs. Series hardware: the RP2C04 and the RP2C05. Both of these operate at 5.37 MHz and output RGB video at NTSC frequencies. Additionally, both use irregular palettes to prevent easy ROM swapping of games.[42]

All variations of the PPU feature 2 KiB of video RAM, 256 bytes of on-die sprite position / attributable RAM (object attribute memory or OAM) and 28 bytes of on-die palette RAM to allow selection of background and sprite colors. This memory is stored on separate buses internal to the PPU. The console's 2 KiB of onboard RAM may be used for tile maps and attributes on the NES board, and 8 KiB of tile pattern ROM or RAM may be included on a cartridge. Using bank switching, virtually any amount of additional cartridge memory can be used, limited only by manufacturing costs.[40]

The system has an available color palette of 48 colors and 5 grays. Red, green, and blue can be individually darkened at specific screen regions using carefully timed code. Up to 25 colors may be used on one scan line: a background color, four sets of three tile colors, and four sets of three sprite colors. This total does not include color de-emphasis.[40]

A total of 64 sprites may be displayed onscreen at a given time without reloading sprites mid-screen. Sprites may be either 8 pixels by 8 pixels, or 8 pixels by 16 pixels, although the choice must be made globally and it affects all sprites. Up to eight sprites may be present on one scanline, using a flag to indicate when additional sprites are to be dropped. This flag allows the software to rotate sprite priorities, increasing maximum amount of sprites, but typically causing flicker.[40]

The PPU allows only one scrolling layer, though horizontal scrolling can be changed on a per-scanline basis. More advanced programming methods enable the same to be done for vertical scrolling.[40]

The standard display resolution of the NES is 256 horizontal pixels by 240 vertical pixels. Typically, games designed for NTSC-based systems had an effective resolution of only 256 by 224 pixels, as the top and bottom 8 scanlines are not visible on most television sets. For additional video memory bandwidth, it was possible to turn off the screen before the raster reached the very bottom.[40]

Video output connections varied from one model of the console to the next. The original HVC-001 model of the Family Computer featured only radio frequency (RF) modulator output. When the console was released in North America and Europe, support for composite video through RCA connectors was added in addition to the RF modulator. The HVC-101 model of the Famicom dropped the RF modulator entirely and adopted composite video output via a proprietary 12-pin "multi-out" connector first introduced for the Super Famicom / Super Nintendo Entertainment System. Conversely, the North American re-released NES-101 model most closely resembled the original HVC-001 model Famicom, in that it featured RF modulator output only.[27] Finally, the PlayChoice-10 utilized an inverted RGB video output.
[edit] Audio

The NES board supported a total of five sound channels. These included two pulse wave channels of variable duty cycle (12.5%, 25%, 50% and 75%), with a volume control of sixteen levels, and hardware pitch bending supporting frequencies ranging from 54 Hz to 28 kHz. Additional channels included one fixed-volume triangle wave channel supporting frequencies from 27 Hz to 56 kHz, one sixteen-volume level white noise channel supporting two modes (by adjusting inputs on a linear feedback shift register) at sixteen preprogrammed frequencies, and one differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM) channel with six bits of range, using 1-bit delta encoding at sixteen preprogrammed sample rates from 4.2 kHz to 33.5 kHz. This final channel was also capable of playing standard pulse-code modulation (PCM) sound by writing individual 7-bit values at timed intervals.[40]
[edit] NES Test Station

The NES Test Station is an NES-based unit designed for testing NES hardware, components, and games. It was provided for use in World of Nintendo boutiques as part of the Nintendo World Class Service program. Visitors were to bring items to test on the station, often with assistance from a technician or store employee.

The NES Test Station features a Game Pak slot and connectors for testing various components (AC adapter, RF switch, Audio/Video cable, NES Control Deck, controllers and accessories) at the front, with a knob selector in the center to select the component to test. On the front edge are three colored button switches: a illuminated red Power switch, a blue Reset switch, and a green switch for alternating between AV and RF connections when testing an NES Control Deck. The different knob selections are:

* Game Pak Channel (for testing Game Paks)
* Control Deck and Accessories Channel (includes tests for NES Controllers, the Zapper, R.O.B., and Power Pad)
* Audio Video Channel
* AC Adaptor Channel
* RF Switch Channel
* System Channel (for testing a Control Deck)

Nintendo later provided an add-on for testing Super NES components and games, named the Super NES Counter Tester.
[edit] See also
Portal.svg Nintendo portal

* List of Nintendo Entertainment System games
* List of Family Computer games
* List of Family Computer Disk System games
* List of Nintendo Entertainment System emulators
* Nintendo World Championships

[edit] Notes

^ a: For distribution purposes, Europe and Australasia were divided into two regions by Nintendo. The first of these regions consisted of France, the Netherlands, West Germany, Norway, Denmark and Sweden, and saw the NES released during 1986. The console was released in the second region, consisting of the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, and Italy, as well as Australia, and New Zealand, the following year.
^ b: In Japan, Nintendo sold an optional expansion peripheral for the Famicom, called the Famicom Disk System, which would enable the console to run software from proprietary floppy disks.
^ c: The original Famicom included no dedicated controller ports. See game controllers section.
^ e: The NES was the overall best-selling system worldwide, with dominant sales in Asia and North America; though in Europe, the NES lagged in market and retail penetration behind the Sega Master System.[4] Nintendo sold 61.9 million NES units worldwide: 19.35 million in Japan, 34 million in the Americas, and 8.5 million in other regions.[1]
^ f: The commonly-bundled game Super Mario Bros. popularized the platform game genre, and introduced elements that would be copied in many subsequent games[43]
^ g: The D-pad refinements used in the NES controller would be incorporated in nearly every major console to follow,[44] and garnered Nintendo a Technology & Engineering Emmy Award).[45]
^ h: Atari broke off negotiations with Nintendo in response to Coleco's unveiling of an unlicensed port of Donkey Kong for its Coleco Adam computer system. Although the game had been produced without Nintendo's permission or support, Atari took its release as a sign that Nintendo was dealing with one of its major competitors in the market.[8][9]
[edit] References

1. ^ a b "Consolidated Sales Transition by Region" (PDF). Nintendo. 2008-07-30. http://www.nintendo.co.jp/ir/library/historical_data/pdf/consolidated_sales_e0806.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
2. ^ "Best-Selling Video Games". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 2006-03-17. http://web.archive.org/web/20060317005503/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=52404. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
3. ^ "All Time Top 20 Best Selling Games". 2003-05-21. Archived from the original on 2006-02-21. http://web.archive.org/web/20060221044930/http://www.ownt.com/qtakes/2003/gamestats/gamestats.shtm. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
4. ^ a b c GaZZwa. "History of games (part 2)" (http). Archived from the original on 2007-07-04. http://web.archive.org/web/20070704020227/http://www.gamingw.net/articles/74. Retrieved February 12 2006.
5. ^ Consalvo, Mia (2006). "Console video games and global corporations: Creating a hybrid culture" (PDF). New Media Society 8 (1): 117–137. doi:10.1177/1461444806059921. Archived from the original on 2008-02-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20080228191914/http://intl-nms.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/8/1/117.pdf.
6. ^ Sanchez-Crespo, Daniel (2003-09-08). Core Techniques and Algorithms in Game Programming. New Riders Games. pp. 14. ISBN 0131020099.
7. ^ Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World. Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. pp. 279, 285. ISBN 0-7615-3643-4.
8. ^ a b Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World. Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. pp. 283–285. ISBN 0-7615-3643-4.
9. ^ a b "The History of the Nintendo Entertainment System or Famicom". Nintendo Land. http://www.nintendoland.com/home2.htm?nes/history.htm. Retrieved 2006-02-12.
10. ^ Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World. Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. pp. 287. ISBN 0-7615-3643-4.
11. ^ Burnham, Van (2001). Supercade: A Visual History of the Videogame Age, 1971–1984. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. pp. 375. ISBN 0-262-52420-1.
12. ^ http://www.giantbomb.com/nes/60-21/
13. ^ a b c "'Famicom / NES'". NinDB. http://www.nindb.net/nes.html. Retrieved 2007-07-16.
14. ^ Nielsen, Martin (1997). "The Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) FAQ v3.0A". ClassicGaming.com's Museum. http://classicgaming.gamespy.com/View.php?view=ConsoleMuseum.Detail&id=27. Retrieved 2007-07-16.
15. ^ a b The Collector. "The Toploader NES: Why did it fail?". The NES Player. http://www.nesplayer.com/Editorials/toploaderfailure.htm. Retrieved August 23 2006.
16. ^ ""Did you know..." Top 25 Things You May Not Have Known About the NES". Nintendo Player. http://www.nesplayer.com/features/didyouknow/. Retrieved May 19 2007.
17. ^ Hirohiko Niizumi (2003-05-30). "Nintendo to end Famicom and Super Famicom production". GameSpot. http://www.gamespot.com/news/6029220.html. Retrieved 2009-01-04.
18. ^ "Nintendo's classic Famicom faces end of road". AFP. 2007-10-31. http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jAJfrC1k8lDKLOCGJu4VonjOYxBg. Retrieved 2007-11-09.
19. ^ "初代「ファミコン」など公式修理サポート終了" (in Japanese). ITmedia News. ITmedia. 2007-10-16. http://www.itmedia.co.jp/news/articles/0710/16/news102.html. Retrieved 2008-01-20.
20. ^ RyanDG (2007-10-16). "Nintendo of Japan dropping Hardware support for the Famicom". Arcade Renaissance. http://www.arcade-renaissance.com/2007/10/nintendo-of-japan-dropping-hardware.html. Retrieved 2008-01-20.
21. ^ Kent, Steven L. (2001) [2001]. "The Seeds of Competition". The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokémon and Beyond- The Story That Touched Our Lives and Changed the World (First ed.). Roseville, California: Prima Publishing. pp. 305. ISBN 0-7615-3643-4. "The Nintendo Action Set, which included everything in the Control Deck packaging plus the "Zapper" light gun and the game Duck Hunt, sold for US$149, as did the Master System and gun set, which included the "Light Phaser" and the game Safari Hunt."
22. ^ Liedholm, Marcus and Mattias. "History of the Nintendo Entertainment System or Famicom". Nintendo Land. http://www.nintendoland.com/home2.htm?nes/history.htm. Retrieved 2006-02-12.
23. ^ Hernandez, Christopher. "Nintendo NES / Famicom". Dark Watcher’s Console History. Archived from the original on 2007-07-16. http://web.archive.org/web/20070712191857/http://darkwatcher.psxfanatics.com/console/nes.htm. Retrieved 2005-01-05.
24. ^ "Nintendo and Minnesota Set A Living-Room Lottery Test". New York Times. 1991-09-27. http://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/27/business/nintendo-and-minnesota-set-a-living-room-lottery-test.html. Retrieved 2008-02-16.
25. ^ Horton, Kevin. "The Infamous Lockout Chip". BlueTech. http://www.tripoint.org/kevtris/mappers/lockout/. Retrieved 2005-01-05.
26. ^ "Mattel Information & Company History". YourNewFragrance.Com. http://www.yournewfragrance.com/Mattel-s/2461.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-04.
27. ^ a b Nutt, Christian; Turner, Benjamin (2003). "Metal Storm: All About the Hardware.". Nintendo Famicom--20 years of fun. http://archive.gamespy.com/articles/july03/famicom/index5.shtml. Retrieved 2006-05-21.
28. ^ Edwards, Benj (2005-11-07). "No More Blinkies: Replacing the NES's 72-Pin Cartridge Connector". Vintage Computing and Gaming. http://www.vintagecomputing.com/index.php/archives/13. Retrieved 2007-06-03.
29. ^ Nelson, Rob (2003-02-12). "Nintendo Redivivus: how to resuscitate an old friend". Ars Technica. http://arstechnica.com/guides/tweaks/nintendo.ars. Retrieved 2007-06-03.
30. ^ Knibbs, Mark (1997-09-22). "NES Repairs" (Text). http://home.freeuk.net/markk/Consoles/NES_Repairs.txt.
31. ^ "Repairing Your NES". Snackbar-Games.com. 2003-05-21. http://www.snackbar-games.com/features/editorial/repairing_your_nes-40.html. Retrieved 2007-06-04.
32. ^ "Blinking Screen". NES Player. http://www.nesplayer.com/technical/blinkingscreen/blink.htm. Retrieved 6 June 2007.
33. ^ U.S. Court of Appeals, Federal Circuit (1992). "Atari Games Corp. v. Nintendo of America Inc.". Digital Law Online. http://digital-law-online.info/cases/24PQ2D1015.htm. Retrieved March 30 2005.
34. ^ Pegasus Polish site about Pegasus
35. ^ Davidson, Michael. "Famicom Clones / Pirate Multicarts and Other Weirdness". Obscure Pixels. http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~pinwhiz/famicom.htm. Retrieved January 5 2005.
36. ^ ASSEMbler. "Sharp Nintendo Television" (html). ASSEMbler. http://web.archive.org/web/20020408080447/http://assembler.roarvgm.com/Sharp_Nintendo_Television/sharp_nintendo_television.html. Retrieved January 17 2007.
37. ^ "Breaking the Ice: South Korea Lifts Ban on Japanese Culture". Trends in Japan. 1998-12-07. http://web-japan.org/trends98/honbun/ntj981207.html. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
38. ^ "eBay Guides - What's a Five Screw Nintendo NES game 5 screw huh". Reviews.ebay.com. http://reviews.ebay.com/What-apos-s-a-Five-Screw-Nintendo-NES-game-5-screw-huh_W0QQugidZ10000000007353586. Retrieved 2008-10-20.
39. ^ "Vintage Computing and Gaming | Archive » How to Tell if a Copy of Gyromite has a Famicom Adapter in it". Vintagecomputing.com. http://www.vintagecomputing.com/index.php/archives/23. Retrieved 2008-10-20.
40. ^ a b c d e f g h i "NES Specifications". http://nocash.emubase.de/everynes.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-06.
41. ^ a b "NES specificaties". Rgame.nl. http://www.rgame.nl/nesspecs_eng.html. Retrieved 2007-06-06.
42. ^ "Unisystem VS schematic" (PDF). http://www.raphnet.net/electronique/nes_vs/VSSCHEM.pdf. Retrieved 6 June 2007.
43. ^ "15 Most Influential Games of All Time". GameSpot. pp. 6. http://www.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/15influential/p6_01.html. Retrieved 2007-10-24.
44. ^ Nintendo (2007-07-16). "Nintendo Wins Emmy Award". Press release. http://register.nintendo.com/newsarticle?page=newsArchive&articleid=Q_m8EAksWkrkwRE1kPUQ4Jeago7fOXTL&page=archive. Retrieved 2007-10-24.
45. ^ National Academy of Television Arts And Sciences. "Outstanding Achievement in Technical/Engineering Development Awards". Archived from the original on 2008-02-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20080228191914/http://www.emmyonline.org/tech/applications/engineering_award_winners_rev6.pdf.

Per capita income

Per capita income

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Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)

Per capita income means how much each individual receives, in monetary terms, of the yearly income generated in the country. This is what each citizen is to receive if the yearly national income is divided equally among everyone. Per capita income is usually reported in units of currency per year. When comparing nations per capita income reflects gross national product per person, but it is also used to compare municipalities within nations. When determining the per capita income of a community, the total personal income is divided by the population.
[edit] Per capita income as a measure of wealth

Per capita income is often used as a measure of the wealth of the population of a nation, particularly in comparison to other nations. It is usually expressed in terms of a commonly-used international currency such as the euro or United States dollar, and is useful because it is widely known and produces a straightforward statistic for comparison. It is the average income a person in the country is earning.

Particularly when comparing countries with substantially different levels of wealth, however, it has several weaknesses as a measurement.

Economic activity that does not result in monetary income, such as services provided within the family, or for barter, are usually not counted. The importance of these services will vary widely between different economies, both between countries and among different groups within a country. Per capita income gives no indication of the distribution of that income within the country, so a small wealthy class can increase the measured per-capita income far above that of the majority of the population. As for the per capita income of the majority of the population, using the median income or Amartya Sen's welfare function is the more appropriate approach.[citation needed]

Differing currency exchange rates between countries mean that a given amount of money (for example, one US dollar) has differing values in different places.
[edit] See also

* Total personal income
* List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita - GDP at market or government official exchange rates per inhabitant
* List of countries by GDP (nominal) - GDP with currencies converted at market exchange rates
* List of countries by GDP (PPP) - GDP calculated at purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange
* List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita
* List of countries by GNI per capita
* Lending
* Purchasing power parity

Kosovo

Kosovo

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This article is semi-protected indefinitely in response to an ongoing high risk of vandalism.
"Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija" redirects here. For the SFR Yugoslav entity of the same name between 1946 and 1974, see Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija (1946-1974). For an account of the period between 1990 and 1999, see Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija (1990–1999).
"Republic of Kosovo" redirects here. For the state proclaimed in 1991, see Republic of Kosova. For other uses, see Kosovo (disambiguation).
Kosovo
Location of Kosovo (dark green) - Serbia (darker grey)
on the European continent (green + dark grey)
Capital Pristina (Prishtina or Priština)
42°40′N 21°10′E / 42.667°N 21.167°E / 42.667; 21.167
Ethnic groups (2007) 92% Albanians
5.3% Serbs
2.7% others[1]
Area
- Total 10,908 km2
4,212 sq mi
- Water (%) n/a
Population
- 2007 estimate 2,100,000[2]
- 1991 census 1,956,1961
- Density 220/km2
500/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2007 estimate
- Total $5 billion[3] (n/a)
- Per capita $2,300[3] (151st)
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
- Total €3.804 billion[4] (n/a)
- Per capita €1,759[4] (n/a)
Currency Euro (€) (EUR)
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
- Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .rs 3
Calling code +3812
1 The census is a reconstruction; most of the ethnic Albanian majority boycotted.
2 Officially +381; some mobile phone providers use +377 (Monaco) or +386 (Slovenia) instead.
3 ICANN has not given Kosovo its own ccTLD; .rs is the ccTLD of Serbia.
Republic of Kosovo
Republika e Kosovës
Република Косово
Republika Kosovo

Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Europe[5]
Map of Kosovo
Capital
(and largest city) Pristina (Prishtina, Priština)
Official languages Albanian, Serbian
Recognised regional languages Turkish, Gorani, Romani, Bosnian
Demonym Kosovan
Government Parliamentary republic
- President Fatmir Sejdiu (LDK)
- Prime Minister Hashim Thaçi (PDK)
Independence1 from Serbia
- Declared 17 February 2008
1 Independence has only been partially recognised internationally.
Kosovo, UN administration
Flag
Kosovo as defined by UNSCR 1244
Capital Pristina
Government
- Special Representative Lamberto Zannier (UN)
- President Fatmir Sejdiu (LDK)
- Prime Minister Hashim Thaçi (PDK)
UN administration UN administration of Kosovo
- UNSCR 1244 10 June 1999
- EULEX 16 February 2008
History of Kosovo

This article is part of a series
Early History
Prehistoric Balkans
Roman Empire
Byzantine Empire
Middle Ages
Bulgarian Empire
Medieval Serbia
Battle of Kosovo
Ottoman Kosovo
Eyalet of Rumelia
Vilayet of Kosovo
Albanian nationalism
20th century
First Balkan War
Kingdom of Serbia
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
AP Kosovo and Metohija
SAP Kosovo
AP Kosovo and Metohija
Recent history
Kosovo War
UN administration
2008 Kosovo declaration of independence
Contemporary Kosovo
See also Timeline of Kosovo history
Kosovo Portal
v • d • e

Kosovo (Albanian: Kosova, Kosovë; Serbian: Косово or Косово и Метохија, Kosovo or Kosovo i Metohija[6]) is a disputed territory in the Balkans. Its majority is governed by the partially-recognised Republic of Kosovo (Albanian: Republika e Kosovës; Serbian: Република Косово, Republika Kosovo), a self-declared independent state which has de facto control over the territory; the exceptions are some Serb enclaves. Serbia does not recognise the secession of Kosovo and considers it a United Nations-governed entity within its sovereign territory, the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija (Serbian: Аутономна Покрајина Косово и Метохија, Autonomna Pokrajina Kosovo i Metohija), according to the 2006 Constitution of Serbia[7]. (Metohija is the western part of the overall territory).

Kosovo is a landlocked territory. It borders the rest of Serbia north and eastward, the Republic of Macedonia to the south, Albania to the west and Montenegro to the northwest (the latter three recognise it as independent). The largest city and the capital of Kosovo is Pristina (alternatively spelled Prishtina or Priština), while other cities include Peć (Peja), Prizren, Đakovica (Gjakova), and Kosovska Mitrovica (Mitrovica).

In antiquity, the Dardani - a Thraco-Illyrian tribe, inhabited the territory roughly corresponding to present-day Kosovo.[8] In Late Antiquity, the region witnessed considerable migration and ethnic flux. Subsequently, what used to be Dardania became part of the Roman, Byzantine, Bulgarian and Serbian empires. Following the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, it became part of the Ottoman Empire; this brought the region into close contact with the Middle East and subsequently introduced Islam to the population. During the late 19th century, Kosovo was the centre of the Albanian national awakening. In 1912, the Ottoman province was divided between Montenegro and Serbia, both of which became part of Yugoslavia in 1918. During World War II, the majority of Kosovo was part of the Italian occupation of Albania before becoming an autonomous province under the SFR Yugoslavia.

After the Kosovo War and the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia,[9] the territory came under the interim administration of the United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), most of whose roles were assumed by the European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX) in December 2008.[10] In February 2008, the Assembly of Kosovo declared Kosovo's independence as the Republic of Kosovo. Its independence is recognised by 63 UN member states and the Republic of China (Taiwan). On 8 October 2008, upon request of Serbia, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution asking the International Court of Justice for an advisory opinion on the issue of Kosovo's declaration of independence.[11]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Name
* 2 History
o 2.1 Early history (before 1455)
o 2.2 Ottoman Kosovo (1455–1912)
o 2.3 20th century
+ 2.3.1 Balkan Wars
+ 2.3.2 First World War and birth of Kingdom of Yugoslavia
+ 2.3.3 Second World War
+ 2.3.4 Kosovo in Communist Yugoslavia
+ 2.3.5 Disintegration of Yugoslavia
+ 2.3.6 Kosovo War
* 3 UN administration period
o 3.1 UN administration 1999–present
o 3.2 Provisional Institutions of Self-Government
* 4 Declaration of independence
* 5 EULEX
* 6 Constitutional Status and the Republic of Kosovo
o 6.1 Government and politics
o 6.2 Parties
* 7 Foreign relations
o 7.1 Military
o 7.2 Rule of law
* 8 Geography
* 9 Economy
o 9.1 Trade and investment
* 10 Administrative regions
o 10.1 Districts
o 10.2 Municipalities and cities
* 11 Demographics
o 11.1 Languages
o 11.2 Religion
* 12 Society
o 12.1 Relations between Albanian and Serb communities
o 12.2 Cinema and media
o 12.3 Sports
* 13 See also
* 14 References
o 14.1 Notes
o 14.2 Further reading
* 15 External links

Name
Main article: Names of Kosovo

Kosovo (Serbian: Косово, pronounced [ˈkɔsɔvɔ]) is the Serbian neuter possessive adjective of kos (кос) "blackbird",[12][13] an ellipsis for Kosovo Polje "field of the blackbirds", the site of the 1389 Battle of Kosovo Field. The name of the field was applied to an Ottoman province created in 1864.

The region currently known as "Kosovo" became an administrative region in 1946, as the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija. In 1974, the compositional "Kosovo and Metohija" was reduced to simple "Kosovo" in the name of the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo, but in 1990 was renamed back to Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija.[citation needed]

The entire region is commonly referred to in English simply as Kosovo and in Albanian as Kosova (definite form, [kɔˈsova]) or Kosovë ("indefinite" form, [kɔˈsoːv]). In Serbian, a distinction is made between the eastern and western areas; the term Kosovo (Косово) is used for the eastern part, while the western part is called Metohija (Метохија).[6]

Since Kosovo declared independence, it can now also be referred to as "The Republic of Kosovo" in English, though "Kosovo" is still the most common name used.
History
Main articles: History of Kosovo and 20th century history of Kosovo

Kosovo's current status is the result of the turmoil of the disintegration of Yugoslavia, particularly the Kosovo War of 1998 to 1999, but it is suffused with issues dating back to the rise of nationalism in the Balkans during the last part of Ottoman rule in the 19th century, Albanian nationalism (centred around the claim that Kosovo was historically theirs due to alleged connections with the Illyrians) vs. Serbian nationalism (notably surrounding the Battle of Kosovo eponymous with the Kosovo region) in particular.
Early history (before 1455)
Main articles: Dardani, Illyrians, Battle of Kosovo, and History of Medieval Serbia

From the 4th to 1st centuries BC, the Dardani inhabited the region which roughly corresponds to modern Kosovo.[14] The area was then conquered by Rome in the 160s BC, and incorporated into the Roman province of Illyricum in 59 BC. Subsequently, it became part of Moesia Superior in AD 87. The Slavic migrations reached the Balkans in the 6th to 7th century, whereby autochthonous peoples merged with the northern newcomers.[15] Kosovo was absorbed into the Bulgarian Empire in the 850s, where Christianity and a Byzantine-Slavic culture was cemented in the region. It was re-taken by the Byzantines after 1018, and became part of the newly established Theme of Bulgaria. As the centre of Slavic resistance to Constantinople in the region, the region often switched between Serbian and Bulgarian rule on one hand and Byzantine on the other until the Serb principality of Rascia conquered it definitively by the end of the 12th century.[16] Such takeovers had little impact on the local populace, since it merely represented a changing of one Balkan Christian dynasty by another. The zenith of Serbian power was reached in 1346, with the formation of the Serbian Empire. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Kosovo became a political and spiritual centre of the Serbian Kingdom. In the late 1200s, the seat of the Serbian Archbishopric was moved to Pec, and rulers centred themselves between Prizren and Skopje.[17][18] When the Serbian Empire fragmented into a conglomeration of principalities in 1371, Kosovo became the hereditary land of the House of Branković.

In the 1389 Battle of Kosovo, Ottoman forces defeated a coalition of Serbs, Albanians, and Bosnians [19] led by the Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović. Soon after parts of Serbia accepted Turkish vassalage and Lazar's daughter was married to the Sultan to seal the peace. By 1455, it was finally and fully conquered by the Ottoman Empire.[20]
Ottoman Kosovo (1455–1912)
Main article: History of Ottoman Kosovo
Further information: Vilayet of Kosovo and History of Ottoman Serbia

Kosovo was part of the Ottoman Empire from 1455 to 1912, at first as part of the eyalet of Rumelia, and from 1864 as a separate province (vilayet). During this time, Islam was introduced to the population. The Vilayet of Kosovo was an area much larger than today's Kosovo; it included all today's Kosovo territory, sections of the Sandžak region cutting into present-day Central Serbia and Montenegro along with the Kukës municipality, the surrounding region in present-day northern Albania and also parts of north-western Macedonia with the city of Skopje (then Üsküp), as its capital. Between 1881 and 1912 (its final phase), it was internally expanded to include other regions of present-day Republic of Macedonia, including larger urban settlements such as Štip (İştip), Kumanovo (Kumanova) and Kratovo (Kratova) (see map).

Ottoman occupation left a lasting demographic effect on Kosovo — with full-scale dislocation of Chistian groups (especially Serbs and Orthodox Vlachs). The Serb population never accepted Ottoman rule and often rose against the foreign regimen. According to Banac, "Ottoman raids, plunder, slaving forays, as well as the general devastation caused by constant wars uprooted large numbers of Serbs even before the 'Great Serb Migration' "[21]. Kosovo, like Serbia, was occupied by Austrian forces during the Great War of 1683–1699,[22] but the Ottomans re-established their rule of the region. Such acts of assistance by the Austrian Empire (then arch-rivals of the Ottoman Empire), or Russia, were always abortive or temporary at best.[21][23] In 1690, the [[S erbian Patriarch of Peć]] Arsenije III apparently led some 30,000 to 40,000 predominantly Serbs out of Kosovo and other areas into Austria.[24] More migrations of Orthodox Christians from the Kosovo area preceded and followed throughout the 18th century during the Great Serb Migrations.[25] In 1766, the Ottomans abolished the Patriarchate of Peć and the position of Christians in Kosovo further deteriorated, including full imposition of jizya (taxation of non-Muslims).

Although initially stout opponents of the advancing Turks, Albanian chiefs ultimately came to accept the Ottomans as sovereigns. The resulting alliance facilitated the mass conversion of Albanians to Islam. Given that the Ottoman Empire's subjects were divided along religious (rather than ethnic) lines, Islamicisation greatly elevated the status of Albanian chiefs. Prior to this, they were organised along simple tribal lines, living in the mountainous areas of modern Albania (from Kruje to the Sar range). Soon, they expanded into a depopulated Kosovo, as well as northwestern Macedonia, although some might have been autochthonous to the region.[26][27][28] Many Albanians gained prominent positions in the Ottoman government, no fewer than 42 Grand Viziers of the Empire were Albanian in origin, including Mehmet Akif Ersoy (1873–1936) an Albanian from Peć who composed the Turkish National Anthem in 1921, "İstiklâl Marşı" (The Independence March).[29] As Hupchik states, "Albanians had little cause of unrest" and "if anything, grew important in Ottoman internal affairs",[30] and sometimes persecuted Christians harshly on behalf of their Turkish masters.[19]

In the 19th century, there was an awakening of ethnic nationalism throughout the Balkans. This systematised the underlying ethnic tensions into a broader struggle of Christian Serbs against Muslim Albanians.[19] The ethnic Albanian nationalism movement was centred in Kosovo. In 1878 the League of Prizren (Albanian: Lidhja e Prizrenit) was formed. This was a political organisation which aimed to unify all the Albanians of the Ottoman Empire in a common struggle for autonomy and greater cultural rights,[31] although they generally desired the continuation of the Ottoman Empire, given their position as favoured subjects.[32] The League was dis-established in 1881 but nevertheless enabled the awakening of a national identity amongst Albanians.[33] It would be clear that Albanian ambitions were at odds with Serbian aims. The Kingdom of Serbia wished to incorporate this land formerly within its empire.
20th century
Main article: 20th century history of Kosovo
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Balkan Wars
Main article: Balkan Wars

The Young Turk movement took control of the Ottoman Empire after a coup in 1912 which disposed of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. The movement supported a centralised form of government and opposed any sort of autonomy desired by the various nationalities of the Ottoman Empire. An allegiance to Ottomanism was promoted instead.[34] An Albanian uprising in 1912 exposed the Empires Northern territories in Kosovo and Novi Pazar which led to an invasion by the Kingdom of Montenegro. The Ottomans suffered a serious defeat at the hands of Albanians in 1912, culminating in the Ottoman loss of most of its Albanian inhabited lands. The Albanians threatened to march all the way to Salonika and reimpose Abdul Hamid.[35] A wave of Albanians in the Ottoman army ranks also deserted during this period, refusing to fight their own kin. Two months later in September of the same year, a joint Balkan force made up of Serbian, Montenegrin, Bulgarian and Greek forces drove the Ottomans out of most of their European possessions. The British MP Audrey Hebert sums up the impact of the Albanian revolt in brining an end to Ottoman rule in Europe; ‘In the end, like Samson in the Temple of Gaza, they pulled down the columns of the Ottoman Empire upon their own head. It was the Albanians and not the Serbs or Bulgarians or Greeks who defeated the Turks’.[36] The rise of Nationalism unfortunately hampered relations between Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, due to influence from Russians, Austrians and Ottomans.[37] Kosovo's status within Serbia was finalised the following year at the Treaty of London.[38] Soon, there were concerted Serbian colonisation efforts in Kosovo during various periods between Serbia's 1912 takeover of the province and WWII. So the population of Serbs in Kosovo fell after World War II, but it had increased considerably before then.[39] An exodus of the local Albanian population occurred. Serbian authorities promoted creating new Serb settlements in Kosovo as well as the assimilation of Albanians into Serbian society.[40] Numerous colonist Serb families moved into Kosovo, equalising the demographic balance between Albanians and Serbs.
First World War and birth of Kingdom of Yugoslavia

In the winter of 1915–16, during World War I, Kosovo saw the retreat of the Serbian army as Kosovo was occupied by Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary. In 1918, the Serbian Army pushed the Central Powers out of Kosovo. After World War I ended, the Monarchy was then transformed into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians on 1 December 1918.

Kosovo was split into four counties, three being a part of Serbia (Zvečan, Kosovo and southern Metohija) and one of Montenegro (northern Metohija). However, the new administration system since 26 April 1922 split Kosovo among three Areas of the Kingdom: Kosovo, Rascia and Zeta. In 1929, the Kingdom was transformed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the territories of Kosovo were reorganised among the Banate of Zeta, the Banate of Morava and the Banate of Vardar.

In order to change the ethnic composition of Kosovo, between 1912 and 1941 a large-scale Serbian re-colonisation of Kosovo was undertaken by the Belgrade government. Meanwhile, Kosovar Albanians' right to receive education in their own language was denied alongside other non-Slavic or unrecognised Slavic nations of Yugoslavia, as the kingdom only recognised the Slavic Croat, Serb, and Slovene nations as constituent nations of Yugoslavia, while other Slavs had to identify as one of the three official Slavic nations while non-Slav nations were only deemed as minorities.[40] Albanians and other Muslims were forced to emigrate, mainly with the land reform which struck Albanian landowners in 1919, but also with direct violent measures.[41][42] In 1935 and 1938 two agreements between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and Turkey were signed on the expatriation of 240,000 Albanians to Turkey, which was not completed because of the outbreak of World War II.[43]
Second World War

In 1941, Kosovo and Yugoslavia became involved in World War II after the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia in 1941. Large parts of Kosovo became a part of Italian-controlled Albania, other parts went to Bulgaria and German-occupied Military Administration of Serbia. The Italian Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini with its expansionist and irredentist aims on both Albania and Yugoslavia exploited the nationalist sentiment amongst Albanians to gain favour of the Albanian population for the Italian-run protectorate which ruled Albania, and thus encouraged the establishment of a Greater Albania which included large portions of Kosovo which was achieved in the Second World War.[44]

According to some sources, tens of thousands of Serbs were driven out of Kosovo during the Second World War;[45] other sources claim that around 10,000 Serbs were killed and between 80,000 and 100,000 Serbs were expelled, while roughly the same number of Albanians from Albania were brought to settle in these lands.[46] Mustafa Kruja, the Prime Minister of Albania, was in Kosovo in June 1942, and at a meeting with the Albanian leaders of Kosovo, he said: "We should endeavour to ensure that the Serb population of Kosovo be – the area be cleansed of them and all Serbs who had been living there for centuries should be termed colonialists and sent to concentration camps in Albania. The Serb settlers should be killed."[47][48]

At the 1944 wartime Bujan conference the Kosovar communist resistance leaders passed a resolution on the postwar assignment of Kosovo to Albania, but their opinion was later disregarded.[42] After numerous uprisings of Partisans led by Fadil Hoxha, Kosovo was liberated after 1944 with the help of the Albanian partisans of the Comintern and became a province of Serbia within the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia.
Kosovo in Communist Yugoslavia
Main articles: Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija (1946-1974) and Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo

The province as in its outline today first took shape in 1945 as the Autonomous Kosovo-Metohian Area. Until World War II, the only entity bearing the name of Kosovo had been a political unit carved from the former vilayet which bore no special significance to its internal population. In the Ottoman Empire (which previously controlled the territory), it had been a vilayet with its borders having been revised on several occasions. When the Ottoman province had last existed, it included areas which were by now either ceded to Albania, or found themselves within the newly created Yugoslav republics of Montenegro, or Macedonia (including its previous capital, Skopje) with another part in the Sandžak region of Central Serbia.

The violent oppression and forced expatriation of Albanians resumed, particularly after 1953, when Josip Broz Tito reached an agreement with Turkish Foreign Minister Mehmet Fuat Köprülü to push Yugoslavian Albanians to declare themselves Turks and leave for Turkey.[41]

The harsh repressions and expatriations came to an end when the 4th Plenum of the Central Committee of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia held at Brijuni (the Brioni Plenum) in July 1966 ousted Yugoslavian Interior Minister and Vice President Aleksandar Ranković,[49] who was instrumental in the brutal treatment of Kosovar Albanians.[41] In the late 1960s Kosovo gained limited internal autonomy. In February 1970 the University of Pristina was opened, providing higher education in Albanian.[49] In the 1974 constitution, the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo's government received more powers, including the highest governmental titles – President and Prime Minister and a seat in the Federal Presidency which made it a de facto Republic within the Federation, but remaining a Socialist Autonomous Province within the Socialist Republic of Serbia (similar rights were extended to Vojvodina). In Kosovo Serbo-Croatian, Albanian and Turkish were defined as official languages on the provincial level. Due to very high birth rates, the number of Albanians increased from 75% to over 90%. In contrast, the number of Serbs barely increased, and in fact dropped from 15% to 8% of the total population, since many Serbs departed from Kosovo as a response to the tight economic climate and increased incidents of alleged harassment from their Albanian neighbours. While there was tension, charges of "genocide" and planned harassments have been debunked as an excuse to revoke Kosovo's autonomy. For example in 1986 the Serbian Orthodox Church published an official claim that Kosovo Serbs were being subjected to an Albanian program of 'Genocide'[50] Even though they were disproved by police statistics,[50] they received wide play in the Serbian press and that led to further ethnic problems and eventual removal of Kosovo's status. Beginning in March 1981, Kosovar Albanian students of the University of Pristina organised protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia along with human rights.[51] The protests were brutally suppressed by the police and army, with many protesters arrested.[49] During the 1980s, ethnic tensions continued with frequent violent outbreaks against Yugoslav state authorities resulting in a further increase in emigration of Kosovo Serbs and other ethnic groups.[52][53] The Yugoslav leadership tried to suppress protests of Kosovo Serbs seeking protection from ethnic discrimination and violence.[54]
Disintegration of Yugoslavia
Main articles: Kosovo War, Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija (1990–1999), and Republic of Kosova (1990–2000)
Further information: Disintegration of Yugoslavia
Bridge over the Ibar, connecting the Serbian and Albanian parts of the city of Mitrovica.

Inter-ethnic tensions continued to worsen in Kosovo throughout the 1980s. The 1986 Memorandum of the Serbian Academy warned that Yugoslavia was suffering from ethnic strife and the disintegration of the Yugoslav economy into separate economic sectors and territories, which was transforming the federal state into a loose confederation.[55]

On June 28, 1989, Slobodan Milošević delivered the Gazimestan speech in front of a large number of Serb citizens at the main celebration marking the 600th anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo. Many think that this speech helped Milošević consolidate his authority in Serbia.[56] In 1989, Milošević, employing a mix of intimidation and political manoeuvring, drastically reduced Kosovo's special autonomous status within Serbia and started cultural oppression of the ethnic Albanian population.[57] Kosovo Albanians responded with a non-violent separatist movement, employing widespread civil disobedience and creation of parallel structures in education, medical care, and taxation, with the ultimate goal of achieving the independence of Kosovo.[58] On July 2, 1990, the self declared Kosovo parliament declared Kosovo an independent country, the Republic of Kosova. In May 1992, Ibrahim Rugova was elected president.[59] During its lifetime, the Republic of Kosova was only recognised by Albania; it was formally disbanded in 2000 when its institutions were replaced by the Joint Interim Administrative Structure established by the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK).
Kosovo War
Main article: Kosovo War

In 1995 the Dayton Agreement ended the Bosnian War, drawing considerable international attention. However, despite the hopes of Kosovar Albanians, the situation in Kosovo remained largely unaddressed by the international community, and by 1996 the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), an ethnic Albanian guerilla group, had prevailed over the non-violent resistance movement and had started offering armed resistance to Serbian and Yugoslav security forces, resulting in early stages of the Kosovo War.[57][60] By 1998, as the violence had worsened and displaced scores of Albanians, Western interest had increased. The Serbian authorities were compelled to sign a ceasefire and partial retreat, monitored by OSCE observers according to an agreement negotiated by Richard Holbrooke. However, the ceasefire did not hold and fighting resumed in December 1998. The Račak massacre in January 1999 in particular brought new international attention to the conflict.[57] Within weeks, a multilateral international conference was convened and by March had prepared a draft agreement known as the Rambouillet Accords, calling for restoration of Kosovo's autonomy and deployment of NATO peacekeeping forces. The Serbian party found the terms unacceptable and refused to sign the draft.

Between March 24 and June 10, 1999, NATO intervened by bombing Yugoslavia[61] aimed to force Milošević to withdraw his forces from Kosovo. This military action was not authorised by the Security Council of the United Nations and was therefore contrary to the provisions of the United Nations Charter. Combined with continued skirmishes between Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav forces the conflict resulted in a further massive displacement of population in Kosovo.[62] During the conflict, roughly a million ethnic Albanians fled or were forcefully driven from Kosovo. Altogether, more than 11,000 deaths have been reported to Carla Del Ponte by her prosecutors.[63] Some 3,000 people are still missing, of which 2,500 are Albanian, 400 Serbs and 100 Roma.[64] Ultimately by June Milošević had agreed to a foreign military presence within Kosovo and withdrawal of his troops.

Since May 1999, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia has prosecuted crimes committed during the Kosovo War. Nine Serbian and Yugoslavian commanders have been indicted so far for crimes against humanity and violations of the laws or customs of war in Kosovo in 1999: Yugoslavian President Slobodan Milošević, Serbian President Milan Milutinović, Yugoslavian Deputy Prime Minister Nikola Šainović, Yugoslavian Chief of the General Staff Gen. Dragoljub Ojdanić, Serbian Interior Minister Vlajko Stojiljković, Gen. Nebojša Pavković, Gen. Vladimir Lazarević, Deputy Interior Minister of Serbia Vlastimir Đorđević and Chief of the Interior for Kosovo Sreten Lukić. Stojiljković killed himself while at large in 2002 and Milošević died in custody during the trial in 2006. No final judgement concerning the other defendants has been produced so far. The indictment against the nine has alleged that they directed, encouraged or supported a campaign of terror and violence directed at Kosovo Albanian civilians and aimed at the expulsion of a substantial portion of them from Kosovo. It has been alleged that about 800,000 Albanians were expelled as a result. In particular, in the last indictment as of June 2006, the accused were charged with murder of 919 identified Kosovo Albanian civilians aged from one to 93, both male and female.[65][66][67][68] Six KLA commanders were indicted in two cases: Fatmir Limaj, Isak Musliu and Haradin Bala,[69] as well as Ramush Haradinaj, Idriz Balaj and Lahi Brahimaj. They were charged with crimes against humanity and violations of the laws and customs of war in Kosovo in 1998, consisting in persecutions, cruel treatment, torture, murders and rape of several dozens of the local Serbs, Albanians and other civilians perceived unloyal to the KLA. In particular, Limaj, Musliu and Bala were accused of murder of 22 identified detainees at or near the Llapushnik Prison Camp. In 2005 Limaj and Musliu were found not guilty on all charges, Bala was found guilty of persecutions, cruel treatment, murders and rape and sentenced to 13 years. The appeal chamber affirmed the judgements in 2007. In 2008 Ramush Haradinaj and Idriz Balaj were acquitted, whereas Lahi Brahimaj was found guilty of cruel treatment and torture and sentenced to six years. Notices of appeal are currently being considered.[70][71][72]
UN administration period
Main articles: Kosovo (UNMIK) and Kosovo status process
The White Drin river.
National Public Library in Pristina.

On June 10, 1999, the UN Security Council passed UN Security Council Resolution 1244, which placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration (UNMIK) and authorised KFOR, a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Resolution 1244 provided that Kosovo would have autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and affirmed the territorial integrity of Yugoslavia, which has been legally succeeded by the Republic of Serbia.[73]

Some 200,000-280,000, representing the majority of the Serb population, left when the Serbian forces left. There was also some looting of Serb properties and even violence against some of those Serbs and Roma who remained.[74] The current number of internally displaced persons is disputed,[75][76][77][78] with estimates ranging from 65,000[79] to 250,000.[80][81][82] Many displaced Serbs are afraid to return to their homes, even with UNMIK protection. Around 120,000-150,000 Serbs remain in Kosovo, but are subject to ongoing harassment and discrimination due to physical threats for their safety.[9]

International negotiations began in 2006 to determine the final status of Kosovo, as envisaged under UN Security Council Resolution 1244. The UN-backed talks, led by UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari, began in February 2006. Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.[83]

In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft UN Security Council Resolution which proposes 'supervised independence' for the province. A draft resolution, backed by the United States, the United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council, was presented and rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty.[84] Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, had stated that it would not support any resolution which was not acceptable to both Belgrade and Kosovo Albanians.[85] Whilst most observers had, at the beginning of the talks, anticipated independence as the most likely outcome, others have suggested that a rapid resolution might not be preferable.[86]

After many weeks of discussions at the UN, the United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council formally 'discarded' a draft resolution backing Ahtisaari's proposal on 20 July 2007, having failed to secure Russian backing. Beginning in August, a "Troika" consisting of negotiators from the European Union (Wolfgang Ischinger), the United States (Frank Wisner) and Russia (Alexander Botsan-Kharchenko) launched a new effort to reach a status outcome acceptable to both Belgrade and Pristina. Despite Russian disapproval, the U.S., the United Kingdom, and France appeared likely to recognise Kosovar independence.[87] A declaration of independence by Kosovar Albanian leaders was postponed until the end of the Serbian presidential elections (4 February 2008). Most EU members and the US had feared that a premature declaration could boost support in Serbia for the ultra-nationalist candidate, Tomislav Nikolić.[88]
UN administration 1999–present
Unbalanced scales.svg
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Main articles: United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo and Provisional Institutions of Self-Government
Main articles: Political status of Kosovo and Kosovo status process

On June 10, 1999, the UN Security Council passed UN Security Council Resolution 1244, which placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration (UNMIK) and authorised KFOR, a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Resolution 1244 provided that Kosovo would have autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and affirmed the territorial integrity of Yugoslavia, which has been legally succeeded by the Republic of Serbia.[73]

According to the Constitutional Framework, Kosovo shall have a 120-member Kosovo Assembly. The Assembly includes twenty reserved seats: ten for Kosovo Serbs and ten for non-Serb minorities (Bosniaks, Roma, etc). The Kosovo Assembly is responsible for electing a President and Prime Minister of Kosovo.
Provisional Institutions of Self-Government

In November 2001, the OSCE supervised the first elections for the Kosovo Assembly.[89] After that election, Kosovo's political parties formed an all-party unity coalition and elected Ibrahim Rugova as President and Bajram Rexhepi (PDK) as Prime Minister.[90] After Kosovo-wide elections in October 2004, the LDK and AAK formed a new governing coalition that did not include PDK and Ora. This coalition agreement resulted in Ramush Haradinaj (AAK) becoming Prime Minister, while Ibrahim Rugova retained the position of President. PDK and Ora were critical of the coalition agreement and have since frequently accused the current government of corruption.[91]

Parliamentary elections were held on 17 November 2007. After early results, Hashim Thaçi who was on course to gain 35 per cent of the vote, claimed victory for PDK, the Democratic Party of Kosovo, and stated his intention to declare independence. Thaçi formed a coalition with current President Fatmir Sejdiu's Democratic League which was in second place with 22 percent of the vote.[92] The turnout at the election was particularly low. Most members of the Serb minority refused to vote.[93]

However, since 1999, the Serb-inhabited areas of Kosovo, such as North Kosovo have remained de facto independent from the Albanian-dominated government in Pristina. Local politics in the Serb areas are dominated by the Serbian List for Kosovo and Metohija. The Serbian List is led by Oliver Ivanović, an engineer from Mitrovica. Within Serbia, Kosovo is the concern of the Ministry for Kosovo and Metohija, currently led by Slobodan Samardzic.
Declaration of independence
States (green) that recognise Kosovo as an independent country.
The "NEWBORN" obelisk unveiled at the celebration of the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence proclaimed earlier that day, 17 February 2008, Pristina.
Main articles: 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence, International recognition of Kosovo, and 2008 Post declaration of independence unrest in Kosovo

The Assembly of Kosovo approved a declaration of independence on 17 February 2008.[94] Over the following days, a number of states (the United States, Turkey, Albania, Austria, Germany, Italy, France, the United Kingdom, the Republic of China (Taiwan),[95] Australia, Poland and others) announced their recognition, despite protests by Russia and others in the UN.[96] Currently, 63 UN states recognise the independence of Kosovo and it has become a member country of the IMF and World Bank as the Republic of Kosovo.[97][98]

The UN Security Council remains divided on the question (as of 4 July 2008 (2008 -07-04)[update]). Of the five members with veto power, USA, UK, and France recognised the declaration of independence, and the People's Republic of China has expressed concern, while Russia considers it illegal. As of October 2008[update], no member-country of CIS, CSTO or SCO has recognised Kosovo as independent. Kosovo has not made a formal application for UN membership yet in view of a possible veto from Russia and China.

The European Union has no official position towards Kosovo's status, but has decided to deploy the European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo to ensure a continuation of international civil presence in Kosovo. As of April 2008[update], most of the member-countries of NATO, EU, WEU and OECD have recognised Kosovo as independent.[99]

As of 9 October 2008 (2008 -10-09)[update], all of Kosovo's immediate neighbour states except Serbia have recognised the declaration of independence. Montenegro and Macedonia announced their recognition of Kosovo on 9 October 2008.[100] Albania, Croatia, Bulgaria and Hungary have also recognised the independence of Kosovo.[101]

The Serb minority of Kosovo, which largely opposes the declaration of independence, has formed the Community Assembly of Kosovo and Metohija in response. The creation of the assembly was condemned by Kosovo's president Fatmir Sejdiu, while UNMIK has said the assembly is not a serious issue because it will not have an operative role.[102]

On 8 October 2008, the UN agreed to ask the International Court of Justice for a non-binding advisory opinion on the legality of Kosovo's declaration of Independence from Serbia, by a vote of 77-6-74 (77 in favour, 6 opposed and 74 abstentions).[103]
EULEX
Main article: European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo

The European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX) is the largest civilian mission ever launched under the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP). The central aim is to assist and support the Kosovo authorities in the rule of law area, specifically in the police, judiciary and customs areas. The mission is not in Kosovo to govern or rule. It is a technical mission which will monitor, mentor and advise whilst retaining a number of limited executive powers. EULEX works under the general framework of United Nations Security Resolution 1244 and has a unified chain of command to Brussels. It has around 3,000 staff, (1,900 international, 1,100 local) and a budget of 205 million Euros for the first 16 months. The head of the mission is Yves de Kermabon.[104]

Local politics in the Serb areas are dominated by the Serbian List for Kosovo and Metohija. The Serbian List is led by Oliver Ivanović, an engineer from Kosovska Mitrovica.

In February 2007 the Union of Serbian Districts and District Units of Kosovo and Metohija transformed into the Serbian Assembly of Kosovo and Metohija, presided by Marko Jakšić, a hardline nationalist residing in the northern part of the divided city of Mitrovica.[105][106] It has demanded unity of the Serb people in Kosovo, boycotted EULEX, and announced massive protests in support of Serbia's sovereignty over Kosovo. On 18 February 2008, day after Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence, the Assembly declared it "null and void".
Constitutional Status and the Republic of Kosovo
Further information: Constitution of Kosovo

The Republic of Kosovo is a parliamentary representative democracy. The executive power is exercised by the Government of Kosovo led by the Prime Minister of Kosovo. Two or three of the ministers, depending on the size of the government, are required to be from the minorities. The President of the Republic of Kosovo is the head of state. The judiciary is independent. The legislative power is exercised by the single-chamber Assembly of Kosovo consisting of 120 members, 100 of them directly elected by the people for a four-year term and twenty seats reserved for representatives of the ethnic minorities only. The assembly elects the president for five years and approves the government.

A new constitution for the Republic of Kosovo was approved by the Parliament of the Republic of Kosovo, coming to force on June 15, 2008.[107][108][109] Kosovo is under de facto governance of the Republic of Kosovo except for North Kosovo, which remains under de facto governance of Serbia. The Republic of Kosovo is governed by legislative, executive and judicial institutions that derive from, and are set-up in, accordance with the Constitution of Kosovo. In November 2001, the OSCE supervised the first elections for the Kosovo Assembly.[110] The last parliamentary and local elections were held in in 2007. United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo has undergone a significant reconfiguration, and no longer possesses the capacity, having handed over its few responsibilities to EULEX, to govern in any meaningful fashion. It will, its head claims, function as a facilitator of contact between Kosovo and those states or organisations which do not recognise it yet.[111]
Government and politics
Government of the Republic of Kosovo

The Government of the Republic of Kosovo is responsible for implementation of laws and state policies and is subject to parliamentarian control.[112]

The Government consists of the Prime Minister, deputy prime minister(s) and ministers.The Government of Kosovo exercises the executive power in compliance with the Constitution and the law.The Government implements laws and other acts adopted by the Assembly of Kosovo and exercises other activities within the scope of responsibilities set forth by the Constitution and the law.The Government makes decisions in accordance with this Constitution and the laws, proposes draft laws, proposes amendments to existing laws or other acts and may give its opinion on draft laws that are not proposed by it.

The Government has the following competencies: Proposes and implements the internal and foreign policies of the country, makes decisions and issues legal acts or regulations necessary for the implementation of laws, promotes the economic development of the country, proposes draft laws and other acts to the Assembly, proposes the budget of the Republic of Kosovo, guides and oversees the work of administration bodies, guides the activities and the development of public services, proposes to the President of the Republic of Kosovo the appointment and dismissal of the heads of diplomatic missions of the Republic of Kosovo, etc.[113]
Main article: Politics of Kosovo
Parties

The largest political parties in Kosovo are the centre-right Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK), which has its origins in the 1990s non-violent resistance movement to Miloševic's rule and was led by Ibrahim Rugova until his death in 2006,[114] and two parties having their roots in the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA): the centre-left Democratic Party of Kosovo (PDK) led by former KLA leader Hashim Thaçi and the centre-right Alliance for the Future of Kosovo (AAK) led by former KLA commander Ramush Haradinaj.[114] Kosovo publisher Veton Surroi in 2004 formed the centre-left Reformist Party ORA. Kosovo Serbs formed the Serbian List for Kosovo and Metohija (SLKM) in 2004 and won several seats, but have boycotted Kosovo's institutions and never taken their seats in the Kosovo Assembly.[114] In 2006 Swiss-Kosovar businessman Behgjet Pacolli, reputed to be the richest living Albanian, founded the New Kosovo Alliance (AKR), which came third in the 2007 elections.
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Kosovo

Currently 14 countries maintain embassies to the Republic of Kosovo. As of November 2009, 63 countries recognise Kosovo as independent. Skënder Hyseni is Foreign Minister of the Republic of Kosovo.[115]
Military

A 2,500-strong Kosovo Security Force (KSF) is to be trained by NATO and will be operational toward the end of 2009. The KSF will replace the Kosovo Protection Corps (KPC) which had been made up mainly of former members of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), the separatist guerrillas who fought Serbian forces during the 1998-1999 Kosovo war.[116]
Rule of law

Judicial power in the Kosovo is exercised by the courts. The judicial power is unique, independent, fair, apolitical and impartial and ensures equal access to the courts.

The Supreme Court of Kosovo is the highest judicial authority[117]

Kosovo Police execute orders and instructions issued legally by the public prosecutor or competent judge.[118]

Following the Kosovo War, due to the many weapons in the hands of civilians, law enforcement inefficiencies, and widespread devastation, both revenge killings and ethnic violence surged tremendously. The number of reported murders rose 80% from 136 in 2000 to 245 in 2001. The number of reported arsons rose 140% from 218 to 523 over the same period. UNMIK pointed out that the rise in reported incidents might simply correspond to an increased confidence in the police force (i.e., more reports) rather than more actual crime.[119] According to the UNODC, by 2008, murder rates in Kosovo had dropped by 75% in five years[120][121]

Although the number of noted serious crimes increased between 1999 and 2000, since then it has been "starting to resemble the same patterns of other European cities".[119][122] According to Amnesty International, the aftermath of the war resulted in an increase in the trafficking of women for sexual exploitation.[123][124][125] According to the IOM data, in 2000-2004, Kosovo was consistently ranked fourth or fifth among the countries of Southeastern Europe by number of human trafficking victims, after Albania, Moldova, Romania and sometimes Bulgaria.[126][127]

Residual landmines and other unexploded ordnance remain in Kosovo, although all roads and tracks have been cleared. Caution when travelling in remote areas is advisable.[128]

Kosovo is extremely vulnerable to organised crime and thus to money laundering. In 2000, international agencies estimated that Kosovo was supplying up to 40% of the heroin sold in Europe and North America.[129] Due to the 1997 unrest in Albania and the Kosovo War in 1998-1999 ethnic Albanian traffickers enjoyed a competitive advantage, which has been eroding as the region stabilises.[130] However, according to a 2008 report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, overall, ethnic Albanians, not only from Kosovo, supply 10 to 20% of the heroin in Western Europe, and the traffic has been declining.[131]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Kosovo

Kosovo represents an important link between central and southern Europe and the Adriatic and Black Seas. Kosovo has an area of 10,908 square km.[132]

The climate is continental, with warm summers and cold and snowy winters. Most of Kosovo's terrain in mountainous, the highest peak is Đeravica (2,656 m/8,714 ft). There are two main plain regions, the Metohija basin is located in the western part of the Kosovo, and the Plain of Kosovo occupies the eastern part. The main rivers of the region are the White Drin, running towards the Adriatic Sea, with the Erenik among its tributaries), the Sitnica, the South Morava in the Goljak area, and Ibar in the north. The biggest lakes are Gazivoda, Radonjić, Batlava and Badovac. 39.1% of Kosovo is forested, about 52% is classified as agricultural land, 31% of which is covered by pastures and 69% is arable.[133] Phytogeographically, Kosovo belongs to the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF and Digital Map of European Ecological Regions by the European Environment Agency, the territory of Kosovo belongs to the ecoregion of Balkan mixed forests.Currently, the 39,000 ha Šar Mountains National Park, established in 1986 in the Šar Mountains along the border with the Republic of Macedonia, is the only national park in Kosovo, although the Bjeshkët e Nemuna National Park in the Prokletije along the border with Montenegro has been proposed as another one.[134]

The largest cities are Pristina, the capital, with an estimated 500,000 inhabitants.[135] The old city of Prizren is towards the south west, with a population of 110,000. Peć in the west has 70,000 inhabitants with Mitrovica in the north at around 70,000.

In October 2009, Kosovo signed an agreement to re-adjust its border with the Republic of Macedonia by exchanging some lands[1]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Kosovo
Kosovo lignite reserves compared to the world
Bill Clinton Boulevard in Pristina.
The "Palace of Youth".

The economic policy of the Republic of Kosovo aims toward a free trade system. In this context, it has drafted a legal framework that ensures the fulfillment of European standards of competitiveness.[136]

Kosovo has Europe's second largest coal reserves[137]

Kosovo is classified a developing country by US intelligence, with a per capita income estimated at €2,100 (2008).[138] Kosovo had the largest exporting company (Trepca) in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia[139] Yet Kosovo was the poorest province of Yugoslavia and received substantial development subsidies from all Yugoslav republics.[140] Additionally, over the course of the 1990s a blend of poor economic policies, international sanctions, poor external commerce and ethnic conflict severely damaged the economy.[141]

After a jump in 2000 and 2001, growth in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was negative in 2002 and 2003 and was expected to be around 3 percent in 2004–2005, with domestic sources of growth unable to compensate for the declining foreign assistance. Inflation is low, while the budget posted a deficit for the first time in 2004. Kosovo has high external deficits. In 2004, the deficit of the balance of goods and services was close to 70 percent of GDP. Remittances from Kosovars living abroad accounts for an estimated 13 percent of GDP, and foreign assistance for around 34 percent of GDP.

Most economic development since 1999 has taken place in the trade, retail and the construction sectors. The private sector that has emerged since 1999 is mainly small-scale. The industrial sector remains weak and the electric power supply remains unreliable, acting as a key constraint. Unemployment remains pervasive, at around 40–50% of the labour force.[142]

UNMIK introduced an external trade regime and customs administration on September 3, 1999 when it set customs border controls in Kosovo. All goods imported in Kosovo face a flat 10% customs duty fee.[143] These taxes are collected from all Tax Collection Points installed at the borders of Kosovo, including those between Kosovo and Serbia.[144] UNMIK and Kosovo institutions have signed Free Trade Agreements with Croatia,[145] Bosnia and Herzegovina,[146] Albania and Macedonia.[143]

The Euro is the official currency of Kosovo and is used by UNMIK and the government bodies.[147] Initially, Kosovo adopted the German mark in 1999 to replace the Yugoslav dinar,[148] and consequently switched to the Euro when the German mark was replaced by it. However, the Serbian dinar is still used in Serbian-populated areas.[138]

The chief means of entry, apart form the main highway leading to the south to Skopje, Macedonia, is Pristina International Airport.
Trade and investment

Free trade: Customs-free access to the EU market based on the EU Autonomous Trade Preference (ATP) Regime, Central European Free Trade Area – CEFTA[149]

Kosovo has a liberal trade regime

Kosovo currently enjoys a free trade within Central European Free Trade Agreement – CEFTA, enabling its producers to access the regional market comprising of 28 million consumers, free of any customs duties.

Taking into consideration the favourable business climate, stable macroeconomic environment and the excellent opportunities across different business sectors, Kosovo is increasingly becoming a very attractive place for doing business. As result, the interest of foreign investors has been increasing steadily during the past years and together with it also the inflow of FDI. According to the Business Registry data for 2007, there are 2,012 companies of foreign and mixed ownership that have already used the opportunity to invest in Kosovo.

The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency MIGA (a member of the World Bank Group) guarantees investments in Kosovo in the value of 20 million Euro.

The US Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) also provides political risk insurance for foreign investors in Kosovo.[150]

The economy is hindered by Kosovo's still-unresolved international status, which has made it difficult to attract investment and loans.[151] The province's economic weakness has produced a thriving black economy in which smuggled petrol, cigarettes and cement are major commodities. The prevalence of official corruption and the pervasive influence of organised crime gangs has caused serious concern internationally. The United Nations has made the fight against corruption and organised crime a high priority, pledging a "zero tolerance" approach.[152]

Kosovo has a reported foreign debt of 1,264 billion USD that is currently serviced by Serbia.[153]

According to ECIKS[154] from 2001 to 2004 Kosovo received $3,2 billion of foreign aid. International donor conference is to be held in Switzerland in June or July 2008. Until now EU pledged €2 billion, $350 mil by USA. Serbia also pledged €120 million to Serb's enclaves in Kosovo.

Kosovo joined the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank on 26 June 2009 as the 186th country to join the two institutions. 95% of Kosovars had previously voted in favour of the move.

The accession follows a 50% tax reduction implemented in 2008 which has helped double investment in the country, setting the economy for an expected growth of "around 4.0 percent to 5.0 percent" in 2010, according to IMF projections.[155]
Administrative regions

Kosovo, for administrative reasons, is considered as consisting of seven districts.[156] North Kosovo maintains its own government, infrastructure and institutions by its dominant ethnic Serb population in the District of Kosovska Mitrovica, viz. in the Leposavić, Zvečan and Zubin Potok municipalities and the northern part of Kosovska Mitrovica.
Districts
Main articles: Subdivisions of Kosovo and Districts of Kosovo
Municipalities and cities
Main article: Municipalities of Kosovo

Kosovo is subdivided into 30 municipalities:
Municipality (Albanian: komuna, Serbian: opština / општина) is the basic administrative division of Kosovo
The first name is Serbian and the second one is Albanian
Municipalities of Kosovo.svg

Map of Kosovo municipalities
01. Dečani / Deçan 11. Leposavić / Albanik 21. Prizren
02. Dragaš / Dragash 12. Lipljan / Lipjan 22. Srbica / Skënderaj
03. Đakovica / Gjakovë 13. Mališevo / Malishevë 23. Štrpce / Shtërpcë
04. Glogovac / Gllogovc 14. Kosovska Mitrovica / Mitrovicë 24. Štimlje / Shtime
05. Gnjilane / Gjilan 15. Novo Brdo / Novobërdë 25. Suva Reka / Suharekë
06. Istok / Burim 16. Obilić / Kastriot 26. Uroševac / Ferizaj
07. Kačanik / Kaçanik 17. Orahovac / Rahovec 27. Vitina / Viti
08. Kosovska Kamenica / Kamenicë 18. Peć / Pejë 28. Vučitrn / Vushtrri
09. Klina / Klinë 19. Podujevo / Podujevë 29. Zubin Potok
10. Kosovo Polje / Fushë Kosovë 20. Priština / Prishtinë 30. Zvečan / Zveçan
Source: OSCE - UNMIK Regulation 2000/43: Albanian, Serbian PDF
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Kosovo
Multi ethnic map of Kosovo.
Girls celebrate Children's Day.

According to the Kosovo in Figures 2005 Survey of the Statistical Office of Kosovo,[157][158][159] Kosovo's total population is estimated between 1.9 and 2.2 million with the following ethnic composition: Albanians 92%, Serbs 4%, Bosniaks and Gorans 2%, Turks 1%, Roma 1%. CIA World Factbook estimates the following ratio: 88% Albanians, 8% Kosovo Serbs and 4% other ethnic groups.[160] According to latest CIA The World Factbook estimated data, as of July 2009, Kosovo's population stands at 1,804,838 persons.It stated that ethnic composition is "Albanians 88%, Serbs 7%, other 5% (Bosniak, Gorani, Roma, Turk, Ashkali, Egyptian)" [161]

Albanians, steadily increasing in number, have constituted a majority in Kosovo since the 19th century, the earlier ethnic composition being disputed. Kosovo's political boundaries do not coincide with ethnic boundaries; Serbs form a local majority in North Kosovo and several smaller enclaves, while there are large areas with Albanian majority outside Kosovo in the neighbouring regions of former Yugoslavia, namely in the Northwest of the Macedonia and in Presevo of Central Serbia.

At 1.3% per year, ethnic Albanians in Kosovo have the fastest rate of growth in population in Europe.[162] Over an 82-year period (1921-2003) the population of Kosovo grew to 460% of its original size. If growth continues at such a pace, the population will reach 4.5 million by 2050.[163] However, this is unlikely to happen; until about 1990, Kosovo Albanians had very high birth rates of about 4 children per woman, similar to many poor developing countries (such as Haiti or Ghana), but this has fallen down to about two since then and will likely sink below replacement eventually, as it has in Albania itself. In addition, Kosovo has a high emigration rate now which it did not have before 1990.

By contrast, from 1948 to 1991, the Serb population of Kosovo increased by but twelve percent (one third the growth of the population in Central Serbia). The population of Albanians in Kosovo increased by three hundred percent in the same period – a rate of growth twenty-five times that of the Serbs in Kosovo. Serbs, similar to most other Eastern European Christian ethnic groups, since about 1990 have had very low birth rates (about 1.5 children per woman) and more deaths than births. This ensures a continued dwindling of the Serb minority as a percentage of the population, even with the dropping births among the Albanians.

Since Kosovo's declaration of independence, Serbs have increasingly fled the region, causing anxiety for Kosovan leaders and encouraging the claims of Serbian politicians.[164]
Languages

The native dialect of the Kosovar Albanian population is Gheg Albanian, although Standard Albanian is now widely used as an official language.[165][166] According to the draft Constitution of Kosovo, Serbian is another official language.[167]
Religion

Islam (mostly Sunni, with a Bektashi minority[59]) is the predominant religion in Kosovo, brought into the region with the Ottoman conquest in the 15th century and now nominally professed by most of the ethnic Albanians, by the Bosniak, Gorani, and Turkish communities, and by some of the Roma/Ashkali-"Egyptian" community. Islam, however, hasn't saturated the Kosovar society, which remains largely secular.[168] About three percent of ethnic Albanians in Kosovo remain Roman Catholic despite centuries of the Ottoman rule. The Serb population, estimated at 100,000 to 120,000 persons, is largely Serbian Orthodox. Kosovo is densely covered by numerous Serb Orthodox churches and monasteries.[169][170][171] Some 140 churches are reported to have been destroyed and partly looted for the black market in the 1999 to 2004 period, of these 30 in a single outburst of violence in March 2004.[172]
Society
Ski Resort in the Šar Mountains.
Relations between Albanian and Serb communities
Serbs hold a strong cultural attachment to Kosovo and see it as the cultural heartland of Serbia, here a World War I poster - “Kossovo Day” from 1916 inviting Allied solidarity with Serbia.

The relations between Kosovo's ethnic Albanian and Serb populations have been hostile since the rise of nationalism in the Balkans during the 19th century, rivalry which became strong after Serbia gained Kosovo from the Ottoman Empire in 1913 and after Albania became independent in the same year.[173] During the Ottoman period however, Serbs and Albanians within Kosovo enjoyed good-neighborly relations, working together to oppose foreign meddling in the territory on many occasions[174] During the Tito-era of communist rule in Yugoslavia, the ethnic Albanian and Serb populations of Kosovo were strongly irreconcilable with sociological studies during the Tito-era indicating that ethnic Albanian and Serb peoples in Kosovo rarely accepted each other as neighbours or friends and few held interethnic marriages.[175] Ethnic prejudices, stereotypes and mutual distrust between ethnic Albanians and Serbs have remained common for decades.[175] The level of intolerance and separation between the ethnic Albanian and Serb communities during the Tito-period was reported by sociologists to be worse than that of Croat and Serb communities in Yugoslavia which also had tensions but held some closer relations between each other.[175]
Cinema and media
Main article: Music of Kosovo

Although in Kosovo the music is diverse, authentic Albanian music (see World Music) and Serbian music do still exist. Albanian music is characterised by the use of the çiftelia (an authentic Albanian instrument), mandolin, mandola and percussion. Classical music is also well-known in Kosovo and has been taught at several music schools and universities (at the University of Prishtina Faculty of Arts in Pristina and the University of Priština Faculty of Arts at Kosovska Mitrovica).
Sports
Main article: Sport in Kosovo

Several sports federations have been formed in Kosovo within the framework of Law No. 2003/24 "Law on Sport" passed by the Assembly of Kosovo in 2003. The law formally established a national Olympic Committee, regulated the establishment of sports federations and established guidelines for sports clubs. At present only some of the sports federations established have gained international recognition.
See also
Kosovo stub.svg Kosovo portal
Main article: Outline of Kosovo

* Albanians in Kosovo
* Albanian nationalism
* Albanian nationalism and independence
* Assembly of Kosovo
* Balkanisation
* Demographic history of Kosovo
* Disintegration of Yugoslavia
* Government of Kosovo
* North Kosovo
* Serbian nationalism
* Serbian-Albanian conflict
* Serbs in Kosovo

References
Notes

1. ^ Statistical Office, Republic of Kosovo, http://www.ks-gov.net/ESK/eng/
2. ^ See KS-gov.net (Serbo-Croatian) UN estimate, Kosovo’s population estimates range from 1.9 to 2.4 million. The last two population census conducted in 1981 and 1991 estimated Kosovo’s population at 1.6 and 1.9 million respectively, but the 1991 census probably under-counted Albanians. The latest estimate in 2001 by OSCE puts the number at 2.4 Million. The World Factbook gives an estimate of 2,126,708 for the year 2007 (see Kosovo entry at The World Factbook).
3. ^ a b "The World Factbook - Kosovo". CIA.gov. March 20, 2008. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kv.html. Retrieved 2008-04-05.
4. ^ a b International Monetary Fund (February 11-17, 2009). "IMF Staff Visit to Kosovo" (PDF). IMF.org. http://www.unmikonline.org/AideMemoireFebruary25_2009.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
5. ^ "Assembly approves Kosovo anthem" b92.net 11 June 2008 Link accessed 11/06/08
6. ^ a b Constitution of the Republic of Serbia
7. ^ "Documents by Opinion and Study". Venice.coe.int. http://www.venice.coe.int/site/dynamics/N_Opinion_ef.asp?L=E&OID=405. Retrieved 2009-07-20.
8. ^ Pannonia and Upper Moesia. A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. A Mocsy. Pages, 9, 26, 65
9. ^ a b Michael Montgomery (2009-04-10). "Europe | Horrors of KLA prison camps revealed". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7990984.stm. Retrieved 2009-07-20.
10. ^ "EU launches Kosovo police mission", BBC, 9 December 2008. – Retrieved on 19 May 2009.
11. ^ "U.N. backs Serbia in judicial move on Kosovo | International". Reuters. 2008-10-08. http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSTRE49780C20081008. Retrieved 2009-07-20.
12. ^ Ibid.
13. ^ "The name Kosovo". Dr John-Peter Maher, Professor Emeritus of Linguistics, Northeastern Illinois University
14. ^ "I/47 Illyrians (700 BC - 10 AD)". Fanaticus.org. 2003-06-13. http://www.fanaticus.org/DBA/armies/I47/index.html. Retrieved 2009-07-20.
15. ^ The Illyrians. A Stipcevic. Noyes Press. Pg 76 the Slavs merged with these people (the Illyrians), thus preserving in their own identity remains of ancient Illyrians
16. ^ John Fine. The Early Medieval Balkans. A Critical Survey from the late 12th Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Page 7.the Hungarian attack launched in 1183 with which Nemanja was allied...was able to conquer Kosovo and Metohija, including Prizren
17. ^ Cirkovic. The Serbs. Page 50-51 "The shift was more apparent to the south at first, symbolised by the transfer of the Serbian archbishporic from Zica to Pec. Ras lost its role as state capitcal and was neglected. The rulers attached themselves to a complex of castles .. around a lake in Kosovo, Orizren and Skipje"
18. ^ Denis P Hupchik. The Balkans. From Constantinople to Commnism. Page 93 "Dusan.. established his new state primate's seat at Pec (Ipek), in Kosovo"
19. ^ a b c "Essays: 'The battle of Kosovo' by Noel Malcolm | Prospect Magazine May 1998 issue 30". Prospect-magazine.co.uk. http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=4173. Retrieved 2009-07-20.
20. ^ New York Times
21. ^ a b Banac (, p. 42)
22. ^ "WHKMLA: Habsburg-Ottoman War, 1683-1699". Zum.de. http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/17cen/habsbott16831699.html. Retrieved 2009-07-20.
23. ^ Cirkovic. Pg 115 Prior to the final conquest, the Turks often took inhabitants as slaves, frequently to Asia Minor
24. ^ The Serbs. Sima Cirkovic. Blackwell Publishing. Pg 144 Patriarch Arsenije III claimed that 30,000 people followed him (on another occasion the figure was 40, 000)
25. ^ Cirkovic. Pg 115 The great migrations that had begun earlier continued after the establishment of Ottoman rule in territories that had formerly been part of the Serbian state
26. ^ Banac (, p. 46)
27. ^ Cirkovic. Pg 244 In Kosovo there were visible signs of ethnic change which had accumulated since the Middle Ages with the immigration of Albanian cattle farmers. In addition to the continual flow of settlers and the Islamisation of urban centres, changes in the population were also caused by political events ... Serbs left territories still under the Sultan's control.
28. ^ John Fine. The Early Medieval Balkans. A Critial Survey from the late 12th Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Page 51. The Albanians were not to create any structure resembling a state until the fifteenth century. However, organised in tribes under their own chieftains, the Albanians dominated the mountains of most of what we today think of as Albania
29. ^ Kosovo (Bradt Travel Guide), by Gail Warrander (Author), Verena Knaus (Author), ISBN 1841621994; ISBN 978-1841621999, Publisher: Bradt Travel Guides; 1st edition (January 1, 2008)
30. ^ The Balkans. From Constantinople to Communism. Dennis Hupchik
31. ^ Kosovo What Everyone Needs to Know by Tim Judah Publisher Oxford University Press US, 2008 ISBN 0195376730, 9780195376739 page 36
32. ^ Cirkovic. Pg 244 since Islamicised Albanians represented a significant portion of the Ottoman armed forces and administration, they did not give up the Empire easily
33. ^ George Gawlrych, The Crescent and the Eagle, (Palgrave/Macmilan, London, 2006), ISBN 1845112873
34. ^ Erik Zurcher, Ottoman sources of Kemalist thought, (New York, Routledge, 2004), Page. 19.
35. ^ Noel Malcolm, A short history of Kosovo, (London, 1998), Page. 248.
36. ^ Ibid, Page. 249.
37. ^ See: Isa Blumi, Rethinking the Late Ottoman Empire: A Comparative Social and Political History of Albania and Yemen, 1878-1918 (Istanbul: The Isis Press, 2003)
38. ^ Treaty of London, 1913.
39. ^ Noel Malcolm, A short history of Kosovo, (London, 1995)
40. ^ a b Schabnel, Albrecht; Thakur, Ramesh (eds). Kosovo and the Challenge of Humanitarian Intervention: Selective Indignation, Collective Action, and International Citizenship. New York: The United Nations University, 2001. Pp. 20.
41. ^ a b c Daskalovski, Židas. Claims to Kosovo: Nationalism and Self-Determination. In: Florian Bieber & Zidas Daskalovski (eds.), Understanding the War in Kosovo. L.: Frank Cass, 2003. ISBN 0714653918. P. 13-30.
42. ^ a b Malcolm, Noel. Kosovo: A Short History. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998. ISBN 0333666127.
43. ^ Ramet, Sabrina P. The Kingdom of God or the Kingdom of Ends: Kosovo in Serbian Perception. In Mary Buckley & Sally N. Cummings (eds.), Kosovo: Perceptions of War and Its Aftermath. L. – N.Y.: Continuum Press, 2002. ISBN 0826456707. P. 30-46.
44. ^ Schabnel, Albrecht; Thakur (ed), Ramesh (ed), 2001. Pp. 20.
45. ^ Schabnel, Albrecht(ed); Thakur, Ramesh (ed), 2001. Pp. 20.
46. ^ Krizman, Serge. Massacre of the innocent Serbian population, committed in Yugoslavia by the Axis and its Satellite from April 1941 to August 1941. Map. Maps of Yugoslavia at War, Washington, 1943
47. ^ Bogdanovic, Dimitrije. The Book on Kosovo. 1990. Belgrade: Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, 1985. page 2428.
48. ^ Genfer, Der Kosovo-Konflikt, Munich: Wieser, 2000. page 158.
49. ^ a b c Elsie, Robert. Historical Dictionary of Kosova. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2004. ISBN 0810853094.
50. ^ a b "Religion and the creation of race ... - Google Books". Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?id=ap8wa_YmT2QC&pg=PA215&dq=genocide+false+kosovo&sig=kmSTVjt9oW2TpXi7kUVw81mjN7o. Retrieved 2009-07-20.
51. ^ New York Times 1981-04-19, "One Storm has Passed but Others are Gathering in Yugoslavia"
52. ^ Reuters 1986-05-27, "Kosovo Province Revives Yugoslavia's Ethnic Nightmare"
53. ^ Christian Science Monitor 1986-07-28, "Tensions among ethnic groups in Yugoslavia begin to boil over"
54. ^ New York Times 1987-06-27, "Belgrade Battles Kosovo Serbs"
55. ^ SANU (1986): Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts Memorandum. GIP Kultura. Belgrade.
56. ^ The Economist, June 05, 1999, U.S. Edition, 1041 words, "What's next for Slobodan Milošević?"
57. ^ a b c Rogel, Carole. Kosovo: Where It All Began. International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, Vol. 17, No. 1 (September 2003): 167–82.
58. ^ Clark, Howard. Civil Resistance in Kosovo. London: Pluto Press, 2000. ISBN 0-745315690.
59. ^ a b Babuna, Aydın. Albanian national identity and Islam in the post-Communist era. Perceptions 8(3), September-November 2003: 43-69.
60. ^ Rama, Shinasi A. The Serb-Albanian War, and the International Community’s Miscalculations. The International Journal of Albanian Studies, 1 (1998), pp. 15-19.
61. ^ "Operation Allied Force". NATO. http://www.nato.int/kosovo/all-frce.htm.
62. ^ Larry Minear, Ted van Baarda, Marc Sommers (2000). "NATO and Humanitarian Action in the Kosovo Crisis" (PDF). Brown University. http://www.unhcr.org/partners/PARTNERS/3bb051c54.pdf.
63. ^ "World: Europe UN gives figure for Kosovo dead". http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/514828.stm.
64. ^ KiM Info-Service (2000-06-07). "3,000 missing in Kosovo". http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/781310.stm.
65. ^ ICTY.org
66. ^ ICTY.org
67. ^ ICTY.org
68. ^ ICTY/org
69. ^ Another Albanian was indicted together with them, but the charges against him were promptly withdrawn after his arrest, as he turned out not to be the person referred to in the indictment.
70. ^ ICTY.org
71. ^ ICTY.org
72. ^ "Second Amended Indictment - Limaj et al". Icty.org. http://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/ind/en/lim-2ai040212e.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-20.
73. ^ a b "Resolution 1244 (1999)". BBC News. 1999-06-17. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/371562.stm. Retrieved 2008-02-19.
74. ^ "Kosovo: The Human Rights Situation and the Fate of Persons Displaced from Their Homes (.pdf) ", report by Alvaro Gil-Robles, Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights, Strasbourg, October 16, 2002, p. 30.
75. ^ UNHCR, Critical Appraisal of Responsee Mechanisms Operating in Kosovo for Minority Returns, Pristina, February 2004, p. 14.
76. ^ U.S. Committee for Refugees (USCR), April 2000, Reversal of Fortune: Yugoslavia's Refugees Crisis Since the Ethnic Albanian Return to Kosovo, p. 2–3.
77. ^ "Kosovo: The human rights situation and the fate of persons displaced from their homes (.pdf) ", report by Alvaro Gil-Robles, Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights, Strasbourg, October 16, 2002.
78. ^ International Relations and Security Network (ISN): Serbians return to Kosovo not impossible, says report (.pdf) , by Tim Judah, June 7, 2004.
79. ^ European Stability Initiative (ESI): The Lausanne Principle: Multiethnicity, Territory and the Future of Kosovo's Serbs (.pdf) , June 7, 2004.
80. ^ Coordinating Centre of Serbia for Kosovo-Metohija: Principles of the program for return of internally displaced persons from Kosovo and Metohija .
81. ^ UNHCR: 2002 Annual Statistical Report: Serbia and Montenegro, pg. 9
82. ^ U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants (USCRI): Country report: Serbia and Montenegro 2006.
83. ^ "UN frustrated by Kosovo deadlock ", BBC News, October 9, 2006.
84. ^ Southeast European Times (2007-06-29). "Russia reportedly rejects fourth dr